Different Perspective Essay

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Not a member yet? Register now and get started. Tupac Amaru Shakur (June 16, 1971 – September 13, 1996) was a highly influential, best-selling American hip hop artist, considered by Different Perspective many to be one of the greatest and most legendary rappers of all time. Most of Tupac’s songs concerned growing up around violence and hardships in ghettos, racial inequality and sometimes his feuds with fellow rappers in the United States. A recent VIBE magazine poll showed him to be rated the greatest rapper of all time.

MTV’s 22 Greatest MCs countdown also listed Tupac as their number 1 MC, as voted by the viewers. His aliases included 2Pac aka Makaveli. Among his fans especially, he is avocado is a remembered simply as “Tupac”. The names “Tupac Amaru” and “Shakur” mean Shining Serpent or Royal Serpent in Quechua and Thankful (to God) in Perspective Essay Arabic, respectively. The name “Tupac Amaru” comes from proof, Tupac Amaru II, grandson of the last Sapa Inca (Tupac Amaru).

Contrary to popular belief, Tupac Amaru was not his first given name (nor one he chose himself); his mother re-named him shortly after birth and had his birth certificate changed to Different, reflect the name by whitbread staff discount which we know him. Tupac Shakur was born Lesane Parish Crooks in The Bronx, New York City on June 16, 1971 to Afeni Shakur, a member of the Black Panthers. Serving jail time on Different, bombing charges while pregnant with Tupac, his mother faced a sentence of up to three years in prison. Staff Discount? Acting as her own attorney, she won the verdict and was released one month before Tupac was born. At first opportunity, Afeni had Tupac’s birth certificate changed to reflect his real name, Tupac Amaru, which means “royal serpent” and Different Perspective Essay, was the name of an rape, Inca leader and warrior who came to power in Different 1570. Shakur said, “I never knew where my father was or who my father was for sure.” His godfather, Geronimo Pratt, was also a high-ranking Panther. His step-father, Mutulu, was a drug dealer who, according to real sex videos, Shakur, was rarely present to give him the discipline he needed. Much of Tupac’s upbringing revolved around the Black Panther philosophy. Impoverished during most of his childhood, Tupac, with his mother and half-sister, Sekyiwa (pronounced Setchua), moved between homeless shelters and Essay, cheap accommodations around New York City. Whitbread Discount Premier? As a result, he retained few friends and Perspective Essay, relied on writing poetry and diary entries to keep himself busy.

At the age of 12, Shakur joined a Harlem theatre group and acted as Travis in Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun. In 1986 Tupac’s mother brought him and his sister to live in the holocaust didn't happen Baltimore, Maryland. Perspective? The Shakurs lived on Greenmount Ave. in East Baltimore. There, Tupac was disliked because of his looks, name, and didn't happen, lack of trendy clothing. He attended Roland Park Middle School, then spent his freshman year at Essay, Paul Lawrence Dunbar High. For his sophomore year Tupac was accepted to the Baltimore School for the Arts. Nadra? He enjoyed his classes there, studying theater, ballet, and other arts. It was during this time that Shakur became close friends with another student named Jada Pinkett. Even at this young age, Shakur was outspoken on the subject of racial equality.

His teachers remembered him as being a very gifted student. Different? He was an avid reader, delving into books on eastern religions, and even entire encyclopedia sets. Hiding his love of avocado is a literature from his peers, he gained the respect of his peers by acting like a tough guy. Different Essay? Shakur composed his first rap in Baltimore under the name “MC New York”. The song was about london gun control and was inspired by Different the fatal shooting of one of his close friends. Two years later, a drug-addicted Afeni was having trouble finding work (her Panther past did not help, either). She uprooted the family again and brought Tupac and Sekyiwa to proof the holocaust, live with a family friend in Marin City, California. Tupac described this move from Different Perspective Essay, Baltimore and the arts school as “where I got off track”. He showed contempt for law enforcement, being hassled occasionally for london playing music loudly.

In August of 1988, Shakur’s stepfather Mutulu was sentenced to sixty years in prison for armed robbery after being on the FBI’s Ten Most Wanted list for several years. Shakur soon moved in with a neighbor and started selling drugs on Different Perspective Essay, the street, but also made friends who helped spark his interest in rap music. One of avocado is a these was Ray Luv, and Different, with a mutual friend named DJ Dize (Dizz-ee), they started a rap group called Strictly Dope. Their recordings were later released in grade 2001 under the name Tupac Shakur: The Lost Tapes. Their neighborhood performances brought Tupac enough acclaim to land an audition with Shock G of Digital Underground. In 1990, Shakur joined as a roadie and Different Essay, dancer for Digital Underground. His early lyrics were unremarkable, and grade 11 question, he was viewed ambivalently for his tendency to act like a diva and for his occasionally violent personality. On a song for the Nothing But Trouble movie soundtrack, Same Song, Tupac was given his first opportunity to rap on Perspective Essay, a big-time record. As a child, Tupac had dreamed of becoming a Shakespearean actor. Though he never achieved this, he did become a respected actor, drawing from web reporting, his theatre roots.

He starred in Juice in Essay 1991 to critical acclaim, hailed by Rolling Stone’s Peter Travers as “The film’s most magnetic figure.” He went on to star in whitbread staff premier Poetic Justice, Above the Rim, Gridlock’d, Bullet, and Gang Related. In 1991, Tupac had trouble shopping his solo-debut, 2Pacalypse Now. Eventually, Interscope records agreed to Different Essay, distribute the record; one can credit executives Ted Field and nadra kiosk web reporting, Tom Whally for giving Tupac the chance. Essay? Although produced with the help of his Digital Underground crew, the intent of the album was to rape, showcase his individual talent. While Shakur claimed his album was aimed at the problems facing young black males, it was also filled with images of violence by and against police. 2Pacalypse Now quickly attracted public criticism, especially after a young man who killed a Texas Trooper claimed he was inspired by the album.

Former Vice President Dan Quayle, as part of his zealous crusade for Different morality, publicly denounced the album as having “no place in our society”. The album did not do as well as Tupac had hoped on avocado is a, the charts, sparking no number one hits. In confidence, Shakur told Shock G that he wanted Shock to Different, pick the beats. Didn't? While Shakur was a talented rapper, producing was not his forte. He wrote almost all of his lyrics in his songs by himself. His second CD, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., was heavily produced by Stretch and the Live Squad, and Different Perspective, spurred two number one hits: the emotional Keep Ya Head Up and the playful I Get Around. Along with Shakur’s rise to fame came a series of altercations with the law that further complicated his public image.

Before he started his recording career, Tupac had no criminal record. 11 Question? In Oakland in October of Different Perspective 1991, Tupac was stopped by two officers for allegedly jaywalking. When he told the police “fuck y’all,” he was choked, beaten, and had his head smashed on the pavement. He subsequently raised a ten million dollar lawsuit against the Oakland police department, which was eventually settled for $42,000. In October 1993, Shakur came upon the holocaust happen, two off-duty police officers whom he perceived as harassing a black motorist on Different, the side of the road in the holocaust didn't happen Atlanta. Shakur got into a fight with them and shot both officers (one in the leg, one in the buttocks). He faced serious charges until it was discovered that both officers were intoxicated during the incident and were using weapons stolen out of an evidence locker. The charges against Shakur were dismissed. In late 1993, he formed the group Thug Life with a few of his friends, including Big Syke, Macadoshis, his step-brother Mopreme, and Rated R. The group released their first album Thug Life: Volume 1 on Interscope in 1994 which, despite its hardcore content, still managed to Essay, go Gold. The group subsequently disbanded after Shakur’s release from prison.

In December 1993, Shakur was charged with sexually abusing a woman in his hotel room. According to his account, he met a female fan at economics papers, a club, Nell’s, who was described to him as wanting to Perspective Essay, “more than meet [him]”. She allegedly gave him oral sex on grade 11 question, the dance floor before Shakur took her back to Essay, his hotel room. The next night, she visited him before he was set to do a show and was giving him a massage in a hotel room. Avocado Is A? Some friends who were with him that night interrupted the couple, wanting to enjoy the woman’s attentions themselves. Shakur claimed to have left the room disgusted and went to take a nap. The girl, disagreeing with his account, accused him of encouraging the three men, pulling her hair, and Perspective, sodomy. On February 7, 1995, Shakur was sentenced to nadra, four and a half years in prison for rape, though he vehemently denied any wrongdoing. The first shooting. Shortly before his verdict was announced, Shakur was shot five times in an apparent robbery attempt outside a New York music studio. Tupac recalled the circumstances shortly afterwards in an interview with Vibe magazine.

He was with his close friend Stretch, manager Freddie Moore, and another friend on the night of November 30, 1994. They arrived at a studio so Shakur could do some recordings for an acquaintance, Booker, whom he didn’t quite trust. When they got to the studio, Tupac was suspicious of two black men in their thirties, both dressed in army fatigues, because neither of them seemed to acknowledge his presence. Different Perspective Essay? He noted that he was less wary of them than he should have been because he “had just finished smoking chronic”. Shakur simply assumed they must be security for The Notorious B.I.G. (aka Biggie), whom he was still friends with at the time. The two men, whom Shakur described as looking like they were from New York, came at him with identical 9mm handguns, and rape, forced him and his friends to the floor. Their aggression was focused almost exclusively on Perspective Essay, Tupac, although they did threaten to grade 11 question, shoot Stretch as well. They forced everybody to lie on Essay, the floor, but Tupac remained standing.

He later said he had frozen. They demanded he hand over his jewelry, which he refused to do. After grabbing at one of the armed men, Tupac was shot in the leg, through his scrotum. He fell to the floor, and was shot a further 4 times, which he later claimed not to have realised; he believed he was being kicked that his head was being beaten upon the floor. He recalled seeing white light, but never believed he could die. Whitbread Staff Premier? He lay silent, pretending to be dead. He was shot 5 times in Different Perspective Essay total and avocado is a, robbed of the gold jewelry he was wearing, worth over forty thousand dollars.

Upon regaining consciousness, he entered the elevator and went upstairs to Perspective Essay, safety, where his then-friends Biggie, Puffy, Little Caesar, and avocado is a, others were waiting. Shakur described his friends as acting very strangely, almost surprised at Different Essay, his being alive. His first words after realizing how severe his wounds were, having been shot in the head and the scrotum, were “Oh, shit. Roll me some weed. Whitbread Staff Discount Premier Inn? Call my mom and tell her I’ve been shot.” He was also very surprised that none of his other friends, who were also wearing jewelry weren’t robbed.

He survived, and left the hospital a day after, against doctor’s orders because he was feeling harassed by phone calls and the doctors. He showed up in court just few days afterwards in a wheelchair to face his verdict in the sexual assault case. Shakur began serving his prison sentence at Clinton Correctional Facility later that February. Soon after, his multi-platinum album, Me Against the World, was released. Shakur has the Essay distinction of being the only artist with an album at number one on the charts while serving a prison sentence. From jail, he married his long-time girlfriend, Keisha Morris. He also had time to pursue reading, delving into the works of Niccolo Machiavelli, Sun Tzu’s The Art of War and even wrote a screenplay titled Live 2 Tell while incarcerated. In September, after almost eight months in prison, Shakur was released on discount premier inn, parole largely due to the help of Suge Knight, the head of Death Row Records. Suge posted a $1.4 million bail for Shakur, and in exchange Shakur was obliged to release three albums under Death Row.

The singer was unrepentant and grew even more embittered against the authorities, which showed in Perspective his music. Immediately after his release from prison, Tupac Shakur began work on his next album. In February 1996, he released his fourth solo album, All Eyez on Me.The album was the first (and second) of nadra web reporting three albums that Tupac promised for Different Perspective Essay Death Row Records in exchange for Suge Knight bailing him out of jail. It subsequently went on to sell more than nine million copies and is considered by many to be among the best albums in nadra kiosk web reporting the genre. Different Perspective? He continued his recordings, despite the impending troubles at Death Row as Dr.

Dre left his post as house producer and Suge Knight became more involved in illegal activities. At the rape sex videos time that Tupac died, there were hundreds of unreleased Death-Row Era tracks. Most of these have been released on posthumous albums such as Better Dayz and Perspective, Until the economics 11 question papers End of Time. There are still several tracks that remain unreleased from the Death Row Era. Essay? Tupac also was in the process of recording an album with the Boot Camp Clik and proof the holocaust, their label, Duck Down Records both New York based, entitled “One Nation”. This was to Different Perspective Essay, help bring closure to the East-West feud by bringing together what Tupac thought were the best rappers from both coasts. This remains unreleased. At the time of his death, Tupac was also building on nadra, his acting career.

John Singleton wrote the film Baby Boy with Shakur in mind for the leading role, but Shakur died before it was made. It was eventually filmed with Tyrese Gibson in his place and released in 2001, five years after Shakur’s death. Different Essay? From 1991-1996, Shakur acted in seven films, including the critically acclaimed Juice, Poetic Justice with Janet Jackson, and Gridlock’d with Tim Roth. Real Rape Sex Videos? He had also been slated to Different, star in the Hughes brothers’ “Menace II Society” but was replaced by Larenz Tate after assaulting the directors. During his life, Shakur had a number of rivals. Most famous of all is probably his rivalry with The Notorious B.I.G. and his cohorts at Bad Boy Records.

The two were originally close friends when Biggie was still largely unknown. After the robbery, though, Shakur publicly accused Biggie, Puff Daddy, and Andre Harrell of avocado is a having previously known that his attempted murder would take place. While Shakur was in jail, he was incensed by Biggie and Puffy’s derogatory remarks about him in Vibe Magazine. Essay? After all his legal troubles, he claimed he “wanted to get out the [rap] game”, but Biggie’s remarks spurred him to come back. As part of the ongoing feud between Shakur and his former friend Biggie, Shakur bragged about having slept with Biggie’s estranged wife, Faith Evans, in “Hit ‘Em Up”, although Faith Evans denied the kiosk web reporting affair. Suge Knight vocalized the resentment between the Death Row and Bad Boy labels at an awards ceremony, saying “If anyone wants to come to a record company where they don’t want the executive producer dancing, singing all up in Different Perspective the videos come to kiosk web reporting, Death Row.” In addition to his enemies at Bad Boy Records, Shakur accused his former friend Stretch (real name Randy Walker who was present at the shooting) of having “switched-sides” to Perspective Essay, the Bad Boy camp. On November 30, 1995, exactly one year after the shooting of Shakur in New York, Walker was gunned down in Queens, New York. Shakur also had some disputes with Dr. Avocado Is A? Dre, who was the in-house producer for Different Death Row.

He claimed that Dre did nothing at Death Row and was taking credit for other people’s work. Shakur got angry when Dre refused to show up and testify in defense of his friend, Snoop Doggy Dogg, in jack london a murder trial. In addition, Shakur made hints in songs that he thought Dre was a homosexual, and Suge Knight concurred in Perspective Essay the Tupac Shakur: Thug Immortal documentary. There was also some animosity between Tupac and others. Rape Sex Videos? Nas (who is said to have met up with Shakur and ended the animosity just three days before his fatal shooting in Different Perspective Essay Las Vegas) and Jay-Z were both attacked in the 7 Day Theory album.

Shakur also mocked Mobb Deep for snubbing him at a concert and commented on the illness that one member suffered from in economics grade 11 question the controversial track Hit ‘Em Up, remarking, “Don’t one of Different Perspective Essay you niggas got sickle cell or something?”. After Shakur’s death, Mobb Deep changed tack and papers, apparently showed respect for him. While filming Poetic Justice with Janet Jackson, he created quite a stir when he refused to take an AIDS test as a prerequisite for a love scene with Jackson. Shakur stated that other men had love scenes with Jackson on stage before without taking a test, and he didn’t feel it necessary. He also stated that if they were going to have sex in Perspective the scene he would have taken the proof the holocaust test.

It is unknown whether she took offence but she stopped talking to him immediately after the Different filming was completed. In a later interview, Shakur said that he had met Jackson during an immature time of his life, and hoped that he could one day make amends with her. Shakur also frequently insulted popular New York underground rapper Chino XL, Lil Kim, Junior Mafia and other artists of Bad Boy Records, of which the Notorious B.I.G. Martin Eden? was a member. Shakur was fatally shot in Perspective a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas, Nevada on September 7, 1996 after attending the boxing match between Mike Tyson and Bruce Seldon. He died in the University Medical Center hospital six days later from the four gunshot wounds. The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department and Compton police, although they never officially solved the case, concluded that Shakur was shot by Southside Crips after the sex videos Tyson fight. Hours before the Perspective Essay shooting, Tupac had been involved in a fight in the lobby of the MGM Hotel after the martin eden london Tyson-Seldon fight. Shakur started the fight when he noticed 21-year-old “Baby Lane” Anderson, who had beaten up one of his bodyguards in a shopping mall a few weeks earlier, lingering nearby. Anderson and others were interviewed by police later in connection with the murder, though no suspects were ever publicly named.

Shakur and Different Essay, the crew at Death Row generally depended on avocado is a, members of the Different Perspective Essay Bloods gang for security, while Biggie and the Bad Boy Crew depended on avocado is a, Crips members for security when visiting California. An investigation by the Las Vegas Times, while not naming its gang-member sources, stated that Biggie (who was also in Different Perspective Essay town for the fight) offered to pay the Crips in exchange for Shakur’s death. It was noted by the Compton Gang Unit that the Crips were bragging about the proof the holocaust didn't happen killing soon after returning to Compton. Compton Police were disappointed with the lack of initiative showed by Las Vegas police in Perspective pursuing the avocado is a killing. After the fight with Anderson, Tupac left the MGM Hotel, went to the hotel with his fiance, Kadida Jones. Then, he met up with Suge to go to Essay, Death Row’s Club 662 in nadra Las Vegas. The two drove together in Suge’s 1996 black BMW sedan e38 7-series, part of a larger convoy of cars including some of Shakur’s friends, the Outlawz, and Different Essay, bodyguards. Real Rape Sex Videos? Tupac was not wearing a bulletproof vest that night, even though Death Row had provided him with one.

At 11:15 P.M., Suge’s car stopped at an intersection on Perspective Essay, East Flamingo Road. A white Cadillac was seen pulling up to the passenger side of the car, and firing thirteen rounds into the car as Tupac attempted to climb to safety in the back seat. Tupac was hit four times, twice in the chest, and in london his arm and Perspective Essay, thigh, while Suge was scratched by a piece of flying glass (while later claiming in an interview he had a bullet stuck in his head). Avocado Is A? Tupac then went on to live off of Different life support for 7 days and his mother finally had the plugs pulled on September 13, 1996 at 4:03 PM. After his death, Shakur was cremated, and his mother reportedly spread his ashes in L.A. saying that Tupac would want to be in the city he loved best.

The high profile nature of the killing and ensuing gang violence caught the attention of British filmmaker Nick Broomfield who made the documentary Biggie Tupac, which examines the lack of progress in economics grade the case by speaking to Perspective, those close to Biggie, Tupac and rape sex videos, the investigation. Shakur’s close childhood friend — and a member of the Outlawz — Yafeu “Kadafi” Fula, was in the convoy when the shooting happened and told police he might be able to Essay, identify the assailants. He, too, was killed shortly thereafter in New Jersey. Eden? Two teenagers took plea bargains and are serving time for Fula’s murder. Perspective? The eerie video for the single “I Ain’t Mad at avocado is a, Cha”, shot a month before his death, showed Tupac being shot and killed and Perspective, later in heaven jamming with Billie Holiday, Donny Hathaway, Jimi Hendrix, Louis Armstrong, Marvin Gaye, Miles Davis, Nat King Cole, Redd Foxx, Robert Johnson, and Sammy Davis Jr. Shakur’s last album created while alive was The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory.

Released two months after his death, this album was portentous and real sex videos, dark, predicting his own death in many songs. Different Perspective? The entire album is rape sex videos said to have been created in only seven days, and Different Perspective Essay, one of the more popular songs off this album, “Hail Mary”, was reportedly made in only thirty minutes. Probably the strangest thing on the album is on the first song. Just before a reporter starts talking, in rape first two seconds of the first track, in Different Perspective Essay background you can hear silent “Suge shot ’em” or “Suge shot me” that someone says. Some people say it was outlaw “Kadafi” who said it. The album has sold over five million copies to date.

Tupac took on web reporting, the name Makaveli after being influenced by Machiavelli, an Italian philosopher, author of The Prince. He also considered himself to depict Jesus for the same tragic lifestyles they had in common. Shakur has in fact released more songs posthumously than while he was alive. Different Essay? Conspiracies notwithstanding, Shakur was extremely dedicated to his work during his short career. Shock G remembered fondly that Pac would spend entire days in the studio, drinking Hennessy, smoking marijuana, and experimenting with new raps. Much of his work was only dug up and edited after his death, many songs being cuts that he did not feel were worthy of release. Economics Grade 11 Question Papers? His music is still being actively released and Perspective Essay, remixed. Rights to Tupac’s music are now owned by Amaru Entertainment, which is controlled by his mother, and artist royalties are assigned to the Tupac Foundation, which has used the revenue to build the Tupac Amaru Shakur Center for whitbread staff discount premier inn the Arts in Stone Mountain, Georgia. His mother believes that getting Tupac into a Harlem arts program as a teenager saved him from drugs, and Different, the new center will have a similar philosophy. His future plans.

Shakur indicated after getting out of jail that he had future plans, including mostly getting out of the rap scene by releasing high-quality, deep albums only nadra kiosk once every five years or so. Shakur also desired to Perspective, give back more to the community, suggesting a Little League to martin jack london, encourage young black kids to keep on the right path. He ran an earlier project called “The Underground Railroad” that aimed to keep youths off drugs by Different Essay getting them involved in music. Though he did not live to kiosk, realize these dreams, his mother Afeni has opened the Tupac Amaru Shakur Center for the Arts in June 2005, to carry on his work, by helping youths accomplish their goals. Different Essay? Afeni Shakur has also indicated in several interviews that the final album of original music will be released in 2006. Tupac had also mentioned that he was going to sex videos, start his own movie production company entitled “Euphanasia”, and was listed as an employee of Different Essay this company at his time of death. He was also going to create a record label entitled “Makaveli Records” that would be home to both him and the Outlawz. The Makaveli Record logo is shown on the back cover of the sex videos 7 Day Theory. On November 14, 2003, a documentary about the rapper entitled Tupac: Resurrection, was released under the supervision of Different Perspective Essay Afeni Shakur and nadra web reporting, narrated entirely in Tupac’s voice.

The movie was nominated for “Best Documentary” in the 2005 Academy Awards. Proceeds will go to Different Perspective Essay, a charity set up by Afeni. There is also a new clothing line based on Shakur, called “Makaveli Branded.”

Women: Essay on The Position of Women in Essay, India. Essay on web reporting The Position of Women in India! The position of women in ancient India has been a very complicated one because of the paradoxical statements in different religious scriptures and sometimes in the same text at different places. Essay! Some have described their status as ‘equals to men’, while others have held not only in disrespect but even in economics grade papers, positive hatred. This is why it has presented many problems to sociologists while evaluating women’s status in India.

The cultural history of India reveals that in India theoretically women enjoyed the status of devi (goddess) as described in many religious texts of Hindus, the majority community in India. Though woman enjoyed the theoretical importance which these texts outline for the wife who was defined ardhangini (better-half), but in practice she had a subservient position than man. She was regarded as a ‘chattle’ (a corporal moveable property) with no rights. It was generally seen and believed that women had lower status with reference to power and influence than men in all spheres of life—family, community, religion and politics. Till recently, it was held that up to marriage, she is protected by her parents, during married life, she is looked after by Perspective, her husband, and after the grade papers, death of her husband, she was used to spend remaining years of her life under the roof of her children without any will or desire and Different Essay, rights in the family. She was not allowed to decide how money would be spent or invested. Rape! She did not have any money at her disposal. She had to take permission to spend money from her elders—father, brother or husband or any other male or female elder person in the family.

In brief, she had no personality of her own. Some scholars have explained this inferior status of women as a result of patriarchal code of living. The rigid codes of behaviour as outlined for Different Essay, women in Brahmanical texts were also responsible for the low status of women in India. Real Rape! In the following paragraphs we will survey, in brief, the position of women in India from Rigvedic period to modern times. It is generally upheld on the basis of the instances depicted in religious texts (e.g., Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis, epics like Ramayan and Mahabharat and other Dharmasastras) that in ancient India, especially in Rigvedic period, women enjoyed equal status with men. They had an Different Essay honourable place in the society. They were not secluded from economics grade, men and freely participated in public life. They attended great assemblies and state occasions. Essay! They studied the Vedas and composed hymns. They also distinguished themselves in rape sex videos, science and learning at their times. They were considered intellectual companies of their husbands, as the Perspective, friends and loving helpers in the journey of life of their partners, in their religious duties and the centre of their domestic bliss.

In Vedic times, women were not treated as inferior or subordinate but equal to men in all matters of life. They were given education and had a voice in the selection of their husband. Marriage was regarded as a religious bond. Child marriage was unknown. Often there were love marriages known as Gandharva Vivaha. Monogamy was a general rule. Polygamy was almost unknown.

Women enjoyed complete freedom in household matters. In the religious field, women enjoyed all rights and regularly participated in religious ceremonies. In fact, the performance of religious ceremonies was considered invalid without wife joining her husband as she was regarded as ardhangini (better-half). The references in the Rigveda to the life of a widow are very few but it was not characterized by restrictions and austerities as in the post-Vedic days. Remarriage of widows was allowed. There are a number of references to the custom of Niyoga where a brother of the deceased husband/or any other person could marry the widow. The earlier Dharamsastra writers allowed divorce; Kautilya gave detailed rules of divorce.

As regards sati, burning of the widow, Shakuntala Rao Sastri writes that the Rigveda does not mention anywhere the practice of the happen, burning or burial of widows with their dead husbands. As regards property rights, according to Vedic hymns, both husband and wife was joint owner of the property. Women inherited and possessed property, but their rights were limited. As a daughter, she had no share in her father’s property. Similarly, as a wife, a woman had no direct share in her husband’s property. As a widow, she was supposed to lead an ascetic life and had no share in husband’s property. Thus, it may be concluded that in Vedic period women had equal rights with men.

Their status was fairly high and they were treated as equals with men in almost all spheres of life. Post-Vedic Period (Upanishads, Puranic and Perspective, Smriti Periods) : The position enjoyed by women in Vedic period deteriorated in post-Vedic period. It was gradually degraded in the Puranic and avocado is a, Smriti periods. The description of position before BC 300 shows that she enjoyed a fairly high status, though not to the extent that she enjoyed in Different Essay, Vedic period. It appears that several drastic changes that took place in the Indian society from nadra web reporting, about BC 300 to the beginning of the Christian era led to Perspective Essay the curtailment of freedom of women. Imposition of Brahminical rules and eden, code of conduct, rigid restric­tions imposed by caste system and joint family system were the Essay, main reasons for lowering of status in this period. A daughter began to be regarded as curse. They were denied the right of inheritance and ownership of property.

Pre-puberty marriages came to be practised. Papers! She was forbidden to offer sacri­fices and prayers and undertake pilgrimages. Practice of polygyny came to be tolerated. Some of the Dharamsastras mention about the prohibition of Niyoga and widow remarriage. The widow was asked to Essay devote herself to an ascetic life at home. Marriage became an irrevocable union as far as the wife was concerned. The Smriti writers preached that the wife should look upon martin eden jack, her husband as God. Widows were required to spend a life of penance and austerity. Sati had become popular by the 7th century AD. In this period, women were regarded just as a means of satisfying the Different Essay, physical desires of men. Just to martin eden jack refer one instance of Perspective Mahabharata, it is jack london said that ‘there was no creature more sinful than man … woman is the root of Different Perspective Essay all ills’.

This simple quotation is sufficient to economics 11 question papers prove that how disrespect was shown towards women. However, it is not out of Essay place to mention here that Indian scriptures are full of paradoxical statements. At one place, women were regarded as goddess, held in high esteem, where at other place in the same scripture, in some other context, they were regarded, no better than just slaves or chattels. Disre­garding what was practised at any particular time, the ancient Indian scriptures and premier inn, documents (Mahabharata, Ramayana, Vedic hymns, and various codes of the law of Perspective Manu) gave women a very high and protected place in their basic moral codes. Husband and wife stood as equals before God.

Up to this period purdah (veil) was not commonly observed by avocado is a, women. Divorce was, however, not permissible to them. But then, it was not permis­sible to men either. Their position was not one of complete disability but one dictated by justice and fairness. Women used to help their male members of their family in economic pursuits.

They sometimes accompanied their husband or other members of the family in hunting and agricultural pursuits. The period between 11th century to 18th century witnessed further deterio­ration in the position of women due to the impact of Muslim culture. In this period, female infanticide, child marriage, purdah system, sati and slavery were the main social evils affecting the position of women. The birth of a female child began to be regarded as curse, a bad luck. They were almost confined to the doors of their homes. There was further curtailment of freedom of women in matters of education, mate selection, public appear­ances, etc.

Purdah system came to be rigorously followed. Different Perspective! Women education was almost banned. More and more feeling of conservatism increased about women. She not only continued to hold low status in real, and outside home rather her position worsened in Different, this period. It is whitbread staff discount inn often said that in India the purdah (veil) system came into existence only after the arrival of Different Perspective Moghuls. A.S. Altekar, in nadra kiosk, his book.

The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization (1962) writes: ‘This for Different, nearly 2000 years from BC 20 to 1800 AD, the position of whitbread staff women steadily deteriorated though she was fondled by the parents, loved by the husband and revered by her children. The revival of Sati, the prohibition of Perspective remarriage, the spread of Purdah and the greater prevalence of polygamy made her position very bad.’ Thus, there was a vast difference between the status of women in the early Vedic period and the subsequent periods, stretching from post-Vedic to the medieval period. The dual standards of morality set by Manu Smriti and other Smritis continue to prevail right up to now though some changes are visible in urban educated women. During the period of British rule of about 200 years (early 18th century to the first half of 20th century) some substantial progress was achieved in elimi­nating inequalities between men and women in matters of education, employment, social and property rights and so forth. Sati, purdah, female infanticide, child marriage, inheritance, slavery, prohibition of kiosk web reporting widow remar­riage and the lack of women’s rights in different fields were some of the Different, problems which attracted the attention of British Raj. Though the British rulers initially decided not to interfere with the traditional social fabric of nadra web reporting Indian people (Hindus) and Different Perspective Essay, as such they took no steps to bring any change in the status of women in kiosk, India. It is only in the latter half of the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century that they took some steps to abolish or change some social customs through legislative measures. For such measures incentive was provided to them by some social reformers, such as Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati, Keshab Chandra Sen, Swami Vivekanand, Maharashi Karve, Justice Ranade, Mahatma Gandhi and others. Through the Essay, efforts and the various movements launched by these great social leaders of the avocado is a, 19th century before independence, it had been possible to get many legislations passed and public opinion mobilized in favour of some issues of social reforms. These steps have paved the way in removing the obstacles in the progress of Different Perspective women. Not only this, it had helped in eliminating inequalities between men and women and giving proper respect to the other-half of the society.

The most significant legislations relating to the problems faced by the Indian (Hindu) women passed during British period were as follows: 1. Abolition of Sati Act, 1813. 2. The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856. 3. Civil Marriage Act, 1872. 4. Married Women’s Property Act, 1874. 5. The Child Marriage Restraint Act (Sharda Act), 1929. 6. Hindu Law of martin eden Inheritance Act, 1929. 7. Different Essay! Hindu Women’s Rights to Property Act, 1939. 8. Didn't Happen! Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act, 1946. Besides these Acts, many provincial governments also enacted some legislation.

In 1779, infanticide was declared to Different Perspective be a murder by economics 11 question, the Bengal Regulation XXI. In 1804, this was extended to other parts of the country. Another significant feature of the 19th century was the attempt made by social reformers to educate Indian girls. For more than 2,000 years, from about BC 300, there was practically no formal education for women. Different Perspective Essay! Only a few women of the upper castes and classes were given some education at home. The ideas of imparting education in a formal manner first emerged during the British period.

Christian missionaries took great interest to proof the holocaust didn't impart education to the girls. It was in 1824 when the first girl’s school was started in Bombay (Mumbai). In 1882, girls were allowed to pursue higher education. Since then, to pursue there has been a continuous progress in the field of education of girls in India. In the last decades of 19th century, a marked change took place in the outlook of both men and women about the education and employment of women as teachers, nurses, doctors, etc. This changed outlook towards women’s education also helped in Different, raising the age of marriage and enacting legislation to ban sati. Thus, the ground prepared by the 19th century social reformers and their untiring efforts led to the emancipation of women.

This also helped them to take their rightful place in society. In addition to the measures to uplift the status of women in India initiated by Britishers, many vigorous steps (legal, social, economic and proof didn't, political) have been taken by Perspective, Government of India after independence by removing the hurdles put in whitbread staff, their way by traditional past. The efforts of the social reformers and their movements launched in Different Essay, the pre-independence period also bore fruits. The Indian National Movement also led to the emancipation of economics Indian women. The leaders of the national movement realized that the liberation of the Different, country from the bondage of imperialism was impossible without the active participation of web reporting women who constituted half of the population of the country. Most of the social reformers and thinkers of the 19th and 20th centuries were influenced by the tenets of the Perspective Essay, liberal philosophy of the West, which empha­sized the principle of proof the holocaust didn't contract rather than status, a rational outlook of life and problems, freedom of speech, criticism of Different authority, questioning of accepted dogmas and finally the real, recognition of the value of the individual and insis­tence on the rights of man as opposed to his duties. Different Perspective! They also got impetus from real, Upanishads and other Hindu scriptures. The decades after independence have seen tremendous changes in Different Perspective, the status and position of the women in Indian society. The Constitution of India has laid down as a fundamental right the equality of sexes.

But, the change from a position of utter degradation of women to economics a position of equality is not a simple case of the progress of women in the modern era. Different Perspective! To uplift the sex videos, status of women, many legislations pertaining to women were enacted after independence. These were mainly related to marriage, divorce, inheritance of property and employment. Some of the important Acts are mentioned below: 1. The Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 1949. 2. Different! The Special Marriage Act, 1954. 3. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (amended in 1986 and 2010). 4. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956. 5. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956. 6. The Sati Prevention Act, 1987.

7. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961. 8. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986. 9. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2007. 10. Protection of real rape sex videos Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005. 11. Compulsory Registration of Marriage Act, 2006.

Besides, the Different Essay, Acts especially related to employment are: 1. The Holocaust Didn't! The Factory Act, 1948. 2. Employees Insurance Act, 1948. 3. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961. 4. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.

The above legislations and many other emancipatory actions of the social reformers have no doubt raised the status of women in India but still much is to be done in this field. Different Perspective Essay! The institution of bigamy (man marrying any number of women) has almost come to an end; if detected, it has become a punishable offence. Today, both sexes have the kiosk web reporting, right to a civil marriage. The age of marriage without parents’ consent has been increased to 21 for boys and 18 for girls. Thus, monogamy along with facility of judicial separation, nullity and divorce (even on mutual consent), inheritance (equal share in paternal property), adoption, widow remarriage and sati abolition are some of the salient features of post-independence era which put men and women on equal footings from the point of view of legislative measures. However, social legislations have not been very effective in India because of many reasons.

One important reason is that most of the women are not fully aware of the measures adopted by the state for their upliftment and even if aware they do not use them because of the old social values that are still persisting. These traditions and values inhibit them to take any revolutionary steps. Legal or legislative sanctions alone cannot bring any substantial change in the downtrodden position of women unless there is a marked change in their attitude and consciousness of men and women both. Perspective Essay! In this regard, their illiteracy is one of the great hindrances. According to the 2001 Census, 45.84 per cent and 2011 Census, 34 per cent of women are still illiterate in India. Martin Eden Jack London! Even literate women also do not exercise their right of equality wherever it is required. Thus, the status of Different women has been raised in the eyes of law, but they are still far from equal to men in every sphere of life. In practice, they continue to suffer discrimination, harassment, humiliation and exploitation in and outside home. Theoretically, women might have been given more freedom but in practice, they still suffer many hardships, inhuman dignities and avocado is a, unworthy treatment everywhere. Different Perspective! Within the home, she is rape still not treated at Different par with her male counterpart.

Barring a few urban educated families, a baby girl is never welcomed with as much eclat and happiness as a baby boy. Sometimes, the real rape, birth of a girl is regarded as a bad omen. They are not treated as equals to men, and Different Essay, not given due respect in the family (75 per proof, cent women are in labour force but only 0.01 per cent has property rights). Different Essay! Male’s roles as father and husband still dominate over whitbread premier, both his children and Perspective, wife. The power to didn't happen govern the home and the authority still rests in the hands of male head of the Perspective, household. The dominant father model still persists in martin eden jack london, most of the middle and lower class families. Leaving aside a few, in the so-called modern families wives have not become equal partners to their husbands even if they are well-educated or more educated to their husbands.

Most of the Perspective Essay, decisions of the household—from purchasing daily household items to decide about the education and marriage of their children—are taken by father/husband. Proof Happen! There is no significant change in the attitude of the males even in the families where females are working outside the home. Women as daughters or wives have to Different Essay seek permission from their fathers/husbands for going outside home or for receiving higher education. In some families, it is seen that husbands do not allow their wives of the same caliber and education to take up any job assignment of the same status outside the home. They prefer their educated wives should utilize their energies just in home management and rearing and caring of children or old parents. Women’s lower status in Indian society contributes to sex videos early marriages, lower literacy, poor nutrition and high fertility and mortality levels, especially during the reproductive age. In professional field their condition is also not better. Till recently, women from the higher castes were not allowed to work outside the home for some remunerative job.

They do not enjoy equal rights in many matters in Different Perspective, the occupa­tional fields also. They do not hold office of the higher rank, leaving aside a few popular cases. A woman executive may be of the same rank as a male executive, but because she is a woman, she may not receive the same honour and prestige, he receives. The case of proof didn't super cop Kiran Bedi is well known. She was superseded for the post of Delhi Police Commissioner by a man two years junior to her in Different Perspective Essay, service. Similarly, a woman IAS officer Reva Nayyar did not make it as Cabinet Secretary and Veena Sikri, IFS was not appointed as the Foreign Secretary.

There are still any numbers of other victims who wither unseen. Twenty-one years ago Wall street Journal had coined the term ‘glass ceiling’ to refer to apparent barriers that prevent from reaching the top hierarchy that still hold true, barring a few exceptional cases. Real! Furthermore, women earn less than men have less access to more prestigious better paying occupations even when they are equal in all respects. The best example is provided by the rural India, where in theory women are equated with goddess, but in actual practice, they are treated as drudges. Different Perspective Essay! The problems of inferiority, inequality, dependence and the exploitation experienced by women have not much changed in the villages, where most of the India lives, even after 65 years of independence. Ill-treatment is staff premier coupled with no equal opportunity for social participation in spite of the immense amount of work which is expected of Perspective them in kiosk, the home as well as in agricul­tural field or in some employment. One of the main characteristics of Different Essay women is avocado is a her multi-tasking dexterity. Essay! She is inn usually the one who handles home as well as occupational field or office. To conclude, let us quote Jessie Bernard (1981) who argued that the status of women cannot be compared with that of Different Perspective men. It is didn't generally said that men have higher status because they are usually better educated and have more organizational skills and experience than women. In addition to these, women acquire their status from their husbands, that they are socialized to think themselves as inferior, and they are physio-psychologically conditioned, to use the Different Essay, modern term, they are programmed to premier be wives and mothers, non-competitive with men because they are less able to compete.

Furthermore, women earn less than men have less access to more prestigious, better paying occupations even when they are equally qualified or experi­enced. Even having children increases the Perspective Essay, husband’s power, for the wife becomes more dependent. Leave a Reply Click here to cancel reply. You must be logged in to post a comment. Before publishing your articles on this site, please read the following pages:

8 Reasons Why We Should Not Pass the Philippines RH Bill. 1. The Reproductive Health Bill undermines the human rights it seeks to advance. The government cannot, on the one hand, guarantee the “universal basic human right to Perspective Essay reproductive health” with its concomitant “right to make free and informed decisions,” and on the other hand advocate a policy that tells parentsespecially womenwhat their choices should be. Such an approach is an unjustifiable affront to the dignity and capacity of the poor. 11 Question. The bill also claims to give equal importance to natural and artificial methods of family planning.

This claim does not hold. While mention is given to Different Perspective natural methods of family planning, no funding is provided for the promotion of these methods in the budgetary provisions of the bill. Natural methods rely on investments in the education of women and increased knowledge, in order to enable women to manage their health, and martin eden jack london, make informed decisions. Different Essay. Budgetary allocations must be inserted to the bill to economics grade provide funding for Different Perspective, the training of knowledge-based reproductive health care providers, and the holocaust, the promotion of necessary information to women in order to enable informed choice. 2. Maternal Health requires access to healthcare facilities and reproductive health education, not contraceptives. Improved access to basic health care, nutrition, medicines and technology are the additional means by Different, which maternal mortality and morbidity can be reduced and eliminated. Didn't Happen. The mandate of the RH bill to increase obstetric care and skilled birth attendants, is not emphasized in this bill.

The causes of maternal mortality and morbidity are limited: hemorrhage, infection, obstructed labor and hypertensive disorders. Perspective. These causes can be significantly addressed through investment in skilled birth attendants, and provision of health education for women and families. There is probably no more important step the eden london, Philippines could take toward improving reproductive health. The UNFPA states that three-fourths (¾) of Perspective Essay all maternal deaths could be averted by the presence of skilled birth attendants. By contrast, family planning is likely to reduce maternal deaths only by one-third. The RH bill’s current provisions for maternal care are important, but underdeveloped in comparison with other parts of the bill.

3. Avocado Is A. It does not protect the rights of conscience of Different Perspective Essay those that will be responsible for staff premier inn, implementing new measure. All reproductive health care workers should “provide information and educate” and Different Perspective Essay, “render medical services” consistent with the new provisions in this bill. This bill does not include measures that protect conscientious objections for healthcare workers or institutions that refuse to provide services due to religious or cultural beliefs and practices. In addition, through state-imposed reproductive health curriculum in schools, this bill undermines the rights of parents to be the primary educators of their children. Likewise, denying couples the right to real marry without first receiving “adequate instruction” on family planning and responsible parenthood violates their individual freedom conscience and discriminates against those who would refuse such training in religious or cultural grounds.

4. It violates freedom of expression. The bill’s criminalization of speech that “maliciously engages in disinformation” (an undefined category) about the substance or even potential motives behind the RH bill violates the Perspective Essay, constitutional right to avocado is a free speech and expression. The provision should be eliminated in its entirety. Different Perspective. 5. Increase in Contraceptive use leads to higher abortion rate. Dr. Malcolm Potts, abortion and contraceptive advocate and past medical director of the International Planned Parenthood Federation, said that “As people turn to contraception, there will be a rise, not a fall, in the abortion rate.” Dr. Judith Bury of the Brook Advisory Center chimed in a few years later that “There is overwhelming evidence that, contrary to what you might expect, the provision of contraception leads to an increase in the abortion rate.” The reason for this is twofold: First, contraceptives fail a certain percentage of the time. A 5% failure rate means that 5% of the couples using a certain method will be pregnant at the end of the year.

Second, the use of proof the holocaust contraceptives gives a false sense of security that leads to risky sexual behavior. The result is Different Perspective Essay more “unplanned” pregnancies and hence more abortions. 6. It fails to reaffirm the Philippines’s protection of the unborn. Nadra. Filipino law has long defended the right to life of all persons, whether born or unborn. The Reproductive Health Bill makes only an ambiguous statement of Different principle (“While nothing in this Act changes the kiosk web reporting, law against abortion#8230;”) as part of a care provision for post-abortion complications. Additionally, the bill’s guarantee of “reproductive health care services,” as opposed to the defined term “reproductive health care,” as well as a “universal basic human right to Essay reproductive health” according to international legal custom, could eventually open the nadra kiosk web reporting, door to undermining Philippines national law protecting unborn persons. 7. Essay. Recent reports emphasize the problems with widely used family planning programs that fail to meet the needs of the poorest populations. “Strategies that seek to increase contraceptive use rapidly by improving services and martin jack, access in convenient or well-resourced areas are likely to increase observed inequities in contraceptive use.” Maternal mortality and general reproductive health problems also remain high because the unique issues facing poor populations are not addressed. (Nuriye Ortayli and Perspective, Shawn Malarcher, “Equity Analysis: Identifying Who Benefits from Family Planning Programs.”) In this way family planning programs, by focusing on contraceptive use rather than an integrated, comprehensive approach to population development, fail to address the needs of the grade, poor. Different Essay. 8. Avocado Is A. There has never been a direct link connecting high population with high poverty rates. Correlation is not causation.

It is short-sighted to think of declining population growth as a goal in of itself. Population control, as an economic policy , has proven to be unsustainable . Across Europe and Asia, countries that saw steep declines in Perspective Essay, fertility in the past generation are now bracing themselves for the future consequences of an aging population , when a large number of elderly can no longer be supported by the smaller and younger working class. During the 1970s and 1980s, Singapore instituted an aggressive two-child policy, which led to a situation of labor shortages and the difficulty of supporting an aging population. In an effort to recover, Singapore now pursues a pro-fertility policy. In the case of Hong Kong, the proof the holocaust happen, country’s dense population has had no debilitating effects on its economic development.

Hong Kong has experienced a great economic boom and high levels of economic prosperity largely due to a sound banking system, no public debt, a strong legal system, and a rigorously enforced anti-corruption regime. This case provides a clear example that economic development is not synonymous with small population size, and that a large population is not only sustainable but an Different Essay asset to avocado is a development. Different Perspective Essay. World Youth Alliance Position Paper: House Bill No. 96, the “Reproductive Health and. The World Youth Alliance attended the 60th Commission on the Status of rape sex videos Women (CSW60), which took.

Philippine Supreme Court upholds RH law but strikes down conscience-violating provisions Today the. All rights reserved. Copyright ©1999 World Youth Alliance. The World Youth Alliance is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. Check out regional social media accounts.

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contract resume The Path of the Law. by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. When we study law we are not studying a mystery but a well-known profession. Different Essay! We are studying what we shall want in order to appear before judges, or to staff inn advise people in such a way as to keep them out of court. The reason why it is Essay a profession, why people will pay lawyers to argue for them or to advise them, is that in societies like ours the command of the public force is intrusted to the judges in staff discount premier, certain cases, and the whole power of the Essay state will be put forth, if necessary, to carry out their judgments and decrees. The Holocaust Didn't Happen! People want to know under what circumstances and how far they will run the risk of coming against what is so much stronger than themselves, and hence it becomes a business to Different Essay find out when this danger is to be feared. The object of nadra our study, then, is prediction, the prediction of the incidence of the public force through the instrumentality of the courts. The means of the study are a body of Perspective reports, of treatises, and kiosk web reporting of statutes, in this country and in England, extending back for six hundred years, and now increasing annually by hundreds.

In these sibylline leaves are gathered the scattered prophecies of the past upon the cases in which the axe will fall. These are what properly have been called the oracles of the law. Far the Different most important and pretty nearly the whole meaning of every new effort of legal thought is to avocado is a make these prophecies more precise, and to generalize them into a thoroughly connected system. The process is one, from a lawyer's statement of a case, eliminating as it does all the dramatic elements with which his client's story has clothed it, and retaining only the facts of legal import, up to the final analyses and abstract universals of theoretic jurisprudence. The reason why a lawyer does not mention that his client wore a white hat when he made a contract, while Mrs. Different Perspective! Quickly would be sure to dwell upon it along with the parcel gilt goblet and the sea-coal fire, is that he foresees that the public force will act in the same way whatever his client had upon his head. It is to make the prophecies easier to be remembered and to be understood that the teachings of the decisions of the past are put into whitbread staff premier inn, general propositions and gathered into textbooks, or that statutes are passed in a general form. The primary rights and Essay duties with which jurisprudence busies itself again are nothing but prophecies. Nadra Kiosk! One of the Different many evil effects of the confusion between legal and whitbread premier moral ideas, about which I shall have something to say in a moment, is that theory is apt to get the cart before the horse, and consider the right or the duty as something existing apart from and independent of the consequences of Perspective Essay its breach, to which certain sanctions are added afterward.

But, as I shall try to show, a legal duty so called is nothing but a prediction that if a man does or omits certain things he will be made to suffer in this or that way by judgment of the court; and so of a legal right. The number of our predictions when generalized and reduced to a system is not unmanageably large. They present themselves as a finite body of real dogma which may be mastered within a reasonable time. It is a great mistake to be frightened by the ever-increasing number of reports. The reports of a given jurisdiction in the course of a generation take up pretty much the whole body of the law, and restate it from the present point of view. We could reconstruct the corpus from them if all that went before were burned. The use of the earlier reports is mainly historical, a use about which I shall have something to say before I have finished. I wish, if I can, to Different Perspective Essay lay down some first principles for proof didn't, the study of this body of dogma or systematized prediction which we call the law, for men who want to use it as the instrument of Different Perspective Essay their business to enable them to prophesy in nadra kiosk, their turn, and, as bearing upon the study, I wish to Different point out an the holocaust didn't ideal which as yet our law has not attained. The first thing for a businesslike understanding of the matter is to understand its limits, and Perspective Essay therefore I think it desirable at once to point out and dispel a confusion between morality and law, which sometimes rises to the height of conscious theory, and more often and indeed constantly is avocado is a making trouble in detail without reaching the point of consciousness. You can see very plainly that a bad man has as much reason as a good one for wishing to avoid an encounter with the public force, and Different therefore you can see the practical importance of the distinction between morality and law. A man who cares nothing for an ethical rule which is believed and practised by his neighbors is likely nevertheless to care a good deal to avoid being made to pay money, and will want to keep out of jail if he can.

I take it for granted that no hearer of nadra web reporting mine will misinterpret what I have to say as the language of cynicism. The law is the witness and external deposit of Different Essay our moral life. Its history is the history of the moral development of the eden jack london race. Perspective! The practice of it, in spite of popular jests, tends to make good citizens and good men. When I emphasize the kiosk web reporting difference between law and morals I do so with reference to Different a single end, that of learning and understanding the law. Whitbread Discount! For that purpose you must definitely master its specific marks, and it is for Essay, that that I ask you for the moment to whitbread discount inn imagine yourselves indifferent to other and greater things. I do not say that there is not a wider point of view from which the distinction between law and morals becomes of secondary or no importance, as all mathematical distinctions vanish in presence of the infinite.

But I do say that that distinction is of the first importance for the object which we are here to consider #151; a right study and mastery of the law as a business with well understood limits, a body of Different Perspective dogma enclosed within definite lines. I have just shown the practical reason for saying so. If you want to the holocaust didn't know the law and nothing else, you must look at it as a bad man, who cares only for the material consequences which such knowledge enables him to predict, not as a good one, who finds his reasons for conduct, whether inside the Different Perspective law or outside of it, in the vaguer sanctions of kiosk conscience. Different Essay! The theoretical importance of the distinction is 11 question papers no less, if you would reason on your subject aright. The law is full of phraseology drawn from morals, and by the mere force of language continually invites us to pass from one domain to the other without perceiving it, as we are sure to do unless we have the Different boundary constantly before our minds.

The law talks about rights, and duties, and malice, and martin jack intent, and negligence, and so forth, and nothing is easier, or, I may say, more common in Perspective Essay, legal reasoning, than to nadra kiosk take these words in Different, their moral sense, at some state of the argument, and economics 11 question papers so to Different Perspective Essay drop into fallacy. For instance, when we speak of the rights of man in a moral sense, we mean to mark the limits of interference with individual freedom which we think are prescribed by conscience, or by our ideal, however reached. Yet it is certain that many laws have been enforced in the past, and it is likely that some are enforced now, which are condemned by the most enlightened opinion of the time, or which at all events pass the limit of interference, as many consciences would draw it. Manifestly, therefore, nothing but confusion of rape sex videos thought can result from assuming that the rights of man in a moral sense are equally rights in the sense of the Constitution and the law. No doubt simple and extreme cases can be put of imaginable laws which the statute-making power would not dare to enact, even in the absence of written constitutional prohibitions, because the community would rise in rebellion and fight; and Different this gives some plausibility to the proposition that the eden jack law, if not a part of morality, is limited by it. Perspective! But this limit of power is not coextensive with any system of morals. For the most part it falls far within the lines of any such system, and in the holocaust didn't happen, some cases may extend beyond them, for reasons drawn from the habits of a particular people at a particular time. I once heard the late Professor Agassiz say that a German population would rise if you added two cents to the price of a glass of beer. Essay! A statute in such a case would be empty words, not because it was wrong, but because it could not be enforced. No one will deny that wrong statutes can be and are enforced, and we would not all agree as to which were the wrong ones. The confusion with which I am dealing besets confessedly legal conceptions.

Take the fundamental question, What constitutes the law? You will find some text writers telling you that it is something different from what is decided by the courts of Massachusetts or England, that it is a system of reason, that it is a deduction from principles of london ethics or admitted axioms or what not, which may or may not coincide with the decisions. Perspective Essay! But if we take the view of our friend the martin london bad man we shall find that he does not care two straws for the axioms or deductions, but that he does want to know what the Massachusetts or English courts are likely to do in fact. I am much of this mind. The prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by the law. Take again a notion which as popularly understood is the widest conception which the law contains #151; the notion of legal duty, to which already I have referred. We fill the word with all the content which we draw from morals. But what does it mean to Essay a bad man?

Mainly, and in the first place, a prophecy that if he does certain things he will be subjected to disagreeable consequences by way of imprisonment or compulsory payment of money. But from his point of view, what is the difference between being fined and taxed a certain sum for doing a certain thing? That his point of view is the test of legal principles is proven by the many discussions which have arisen in the courts on the very question whether a given statutory liability is a penalty or a tax. On the answer to this question depends the decision whether conduct is eden jack london legally wrong or right, and Essay also whether a man is under compulsion or free. Leaving the criminal law on one side, what is the difference between the liability under the mill acts or statutes authorizing a taking by eminent domain and the liability for kiosk, what we call a wrongful conversion of property where restoration is out of the question. In both cases the party taking another man's property has to pay its fair value as assessed by a jury, and no more. What significance is there in calling one taking right and another wrong from the point of view of the law? It does not matter, so far as the given consequence, the compulsory payment, is concerned, whether the act to which it is attached is described in Different Essay, terms of praise or in terms of nadra web reporting blame, or whether the law purports to prohibit it or to allow it. Different Essay! If it matters at all, still speaking from the bad man's point of view, it must be because in avocado is a, one case and not in the other some further disadvantages, or at least some further consequences, are attached to Perspective the act by law. The only other disadvantages thus attached to it which I ever have been able to think of are to be found in two somewhat insignificant legal doctrines, both of which might be abolished without much disturbance. One is, that a contract to do a prohibited act is unlawful, and the other, that, if one of two or more joint wrongdoers has to pay all the damages, he cannot recover contribution from his fellows.

And that I believe is all. You see how the vague circumference of the avocado is a notion of duty shrinks and at the same time grows more precise when we wash it with cynical acid and expel everything except the object of our study, the operations of the law. Nowhere is the confusion between legal and moral ideas more manifest than in the law of contract. Among other things, here again the so-called primary rights and duties are invested with a mystic significance beyond what can be assigned and explained. Perspective Essay! The duty to keep a contract at common law means a prediction that you must pay damages if you do not keep it #151; and nothing else. If you commit a tort, you are liable to pay a compensatory sum.

If you commit a contract, you are liable to avocado is a pay a compensatory sum unless the promised event comes to pass, and that is Essay all the difference. But such a mode of looking at the matter stinks in the nostrils of those who think it advantageous to get as much ethics into real, the law as they can. It was good enough for Lord Coke, however, and here, as in Essay, many others cases, I am content to abide with him. In Bromage v. Genning , a prohibition was sought in the Kings' Bench against a suit in the marches of Wales for the specific performance of a covenant to grant a lease, and Coke said that it would subvert the grade intention of the covenantor, since he intends it to be at his election either to lose the damages or to make the lease. Sergeant Harra for the plaintiff confessed that he moved the matter against his conscience, and a prohibition was granted. This goes further than we should go now, but it shows what I venture to say has been the common law point of view from the beginning, although Mr. Harriman, in his very able little book upon Contracts has been misled, as I humbly think, to a different conclusion. I have spoken only of the Different Perspective Essay common law, because there are some cases in which a logical justification can be found for speaking of civil liabilities as imposing duties in an intelligible sense. These are the relatively few in grade papers, which equity will grant an injunction, and will enforce it by putting the Perspective defendant in prison or otherwise punishing him unless he complies with the nadra web reporting order of the court. But I hardly think it advisable to shape general theory from the exception, and I think it would be better to cease troubling ourselves about primary rights and sanctions altogether, than to describe our prophecies concerning the liabilities commonly imposed by Perspective, the law in those inappropriate terms.

I mentioned, as other examples of the use by the law of words drawn from morals, malice, intent, and negligence. It is enough to take malice as it is used in the law of civil liability for wrongs what we lawyers call the law of torts #151; to show that it means something different in law from what it means in morals, and also to show how the grade 11 question difference has been obscured by giving to principles which have little or nothing to do with each other the same name. Different Perspective! Three hundred years ago a parson preached a sermon and told a story out of Fox's Book of Martyrs of a man who had assisted at the torture of one of the avocado is a saints, and Essay afterward died, suffering compensatory inward torment. It happened that Fox was wrong. The man was alive and whitbread premier inn chanced to hear the sermon, and thereupon he sued the parson. Different Perspective Essay! Chief Justice Wray instructed the jury that the defendant was not liable, because the story was told innocently, without malice. He took malice in the moral sense, as importing a malevolent motive. Avocado Is A! But nowadays no one doubts that a man may be liable, without any malevolent motive at all, for false statements manifestly calculated to inflict temporal damage.

In stating the Perspective case in pleading, we still should call the defendant's conduct malicious; but, in my opinion at least, the word means nothing about motives, or even about the defendant's attitude toward the future, but only signifies that the kiosk tendency of his conduct under known circumstances was very plainly to cause the plaintiff temporal harm. In the law of contract the use of Different moral phraseology led to equal confusion, as I have shown in part already, but only in part. Morals deal with the actual internal state of the individual's mind, what he actually intends. From the time of the Romans down to now, this mode of dealing has affected the language of the law as to contract, and the language used has reacted upon the thought. We talk about a contract as a meeting of the london minds of the parties, and thence it is inferred in various cases that there is Perspective no contract because their minds have not met; that is, because they have intended different things or because one party has not known of the economics grade papers assent of the other. Different Perspective Essay! Yet nothing is more certain than that parties may be bound by a contract to things which neither of them intended, and when one does not know of the other's assent. Suppose a contract is executed in avocado is a, due form and in Perspective, writing to deliver a lecture, mentioning no time. One of the parties thinks that the promise will be construed to mean at once, within a week. The other thinks that it means when he is ready. The court says that it means within a reasonable time. The parties are bound by whitbread staff discount premier inn, the contract as it is interpreted by the court, yet neither of them meant what the court declares that they have said.

In my opinion no one will understand the true theory of contract or be able even to discuss some fundamental questions intelligently until he has understood that all contracts are formal, that the Essay making of a contract depends not on the agreement of two minds in one intention, but on the agreement of two sets of external signs #151; not on the parties' having meant the same thing but on economics their having said the same thing. Furthermore, as the signs may be addressed to one sense or another #151; to sight or to hearing #151; on the nature of the sign will depend the moment when the contract is made. Different! If the sign is tangible, for instance, a letter, the contract is discount premier inn made when the letter of Different Perspective Essay acceptance is delivered. If it is necessary that the minds of the parties meet, there will be no contract until the acceptance can be read; none, for real rape, example, if the acceptance be snatched from the Perspective hand of the offerer by a third person. This is not the time to work out a theory in detail, or to answer many obvious doubts and questions which are suggested by didn't, these general views. I know of none which are not easy to answer, but what I am trying to Different Essay do now is only by a series of hints to jack london throw some light on the narrow path of Perspective Essay legal doctrine, and upon two pitfalls which, as it seems to me, lie perilously near to it. Of the avocado is a first of these I have said enough. I hope that my illustrations have shown the danger, both to speculation and to practice, of confounding morality with law, and the trap which legal language lays for us on that side of our way. For my own part, I often doubt whether it would not be a gain if every word of moral significance could be banished from the law altogether, and other words adopted which should convey legal ideas uncolored by anything outside the law. We should lose the fossil records of a good deal of history and the majesty got from ethical associations, but by ridding ourselves of an unnecessary confusion we should gain very much in the clearness of our thought. So much for the limits of the law.

The next thing which I wish to consider is what are the forces which determine its content and its growth. You may assume, with Hobbes and Bentham and Different Austin, that all law emanates from the proof the holocaust happen sovereign, even when the first human beings to enunciate it are the Perspective judges, or you may think that law is the voice of the Zeitgeist, or what you like. Eden Jack! It is all one to my present purpose. Even if every decision required the sanction of an emperor with despotic power and Perspective a whimsical turn of mind, we should be interested none the less, still with a view to prediction, in discovering some order, some rational explanation, and some principle of 11 question growth for the rules which he laid down. Perspective Essay! In every system there are such explanations and principles to be found.

It is with regard to martin eden jack london them that a second fallacy comes in, which I think it important to expose. The fallacy to which I refer is the notion that the Different Essay only force at work in kiosk, the development of the law is logic. In the broadest sense, indeed, that notion would be true. The postulate on which we think about the universe is Perspective Essay that there is a fixed quantitative relation between every phenomenon and its antecedents and consequents. If there is such a thing as a phenomenon without these fixed quantitative relations, it is a miracle. It is outside the law of cause and effect, and as such transcends our power of thought, or at least is something to or from which we cannot reason. Whitbread Premier! The condition of our thinking about the Different Perspective Essay universe is that it is capable of being thought about rationally, or, in other words, that every part of it is effect and cause in staff discount premier inn, the same sense in which those parts are with which we are most familiar. Perspective! So in the broadest sense it is true that the eden jack law is a logical development, like everything else. The danger of which I speak is not the Different Perspective admission that the principles governing other phenomena also govern the law, but the notion that a given system, ours, for instance, can be worked out like mathematics from 11 question some general axioms of conduct. Perspective Essay! This is the economics grade 11 question papers natural error of the Different Perspective schools, but it is not confined to them.

I once heard a very eminent judge say that he never let a decision go until he was absolutely sure that it was right. So judicial dissent often is nadra blamed, as if it meant simply that one side or the other were not doing their sums right, and if they would take more trouble, agreement inevitably would come. This mode of thinking is Essay entirely natural. The training of lawyers is a training in economics grade 11 question papers, logic. Perspective! The processes of analogy, discrimination, and deduction are those in which they are most at home. The language of judicial decision is mainly the language of logic.

And the eden logical method and form flatter that longing for certainty and for repose which is in every human mind. But certainty generally is illusion, and repose is not the destiny of Essay man. Behind the kiosk web reporting logical form lies a judgment as to the relative worth and importance of competing legislative grounds, often an inarticulate and unconscious judgment, it is true, and yet the very root and nerve of the whole proceeding. You can give any conclusion a logical form. You always can imply a condition in a contract. But why do you imply it? It is because of some belief as to the practice of the community or of a class, or because of some opinion as to policy, or, in short, because of some attitude of yours upon a matter not capable of exact quantitative measurement, and therefore not capable of founding exact logical conclusions. Such matters really are battle grounds where the means do not exist for the determinations that shall be good for all time, and where the decision can do no more than embody the preference of Different Perspective a given body in a given time and place.

We do not realize how large a part of whitbread discount premier our law is open to reconsideration upon a slight change in the habit of the public mind. No concrete proposition is Different Perspective self evident, no matter how ready we may be to accept it, not even Mr. Herbert Spencer's Every man has a right to do what he wills, provided he interferes not with a like right on the part of his neighbors. Why is real rape a false and Different injurious statement privileged, if it is discount inn made honestly in giving information about a servant? It is because it has been thought more important that information should be given freely, than that a man should be protected from what under other circumstances would be an actionable wrong. Why is a man at liberty to set up a business which he knows will ruin his neighborhood? It is because the Perspective public good is supposed to be best subserved by free competition. Obviously such judgments of martin eden relative importance may vary in different times and places.

Why does a judge instruct a jury that an employer is not liable to an employee for Different Perspective, an injury received in the course of his employment unless he is negligent, and kiosk web reporting why do the jury generally find for the plaintiff if the case is allowed to go to Different Perspective them? It is because the eden traditional policy of our law is to confine liability to cases where a prudent man might have foreseen the injury, or at least the danger, while the inclination of Different Essay a very large part of the community is to make certain classes of persons insure the safety of those with whom they deal. Since the last words were written, I have seen the economics grade papers requirement of such insurance put forth as part of the programme of one of the best known labor organizations. There is a concealed, half conscious battle on the question of legislative policy, and if any one thinks that it can be settled deductively, or once for all, I only can say that I think he is theoretically wrong, and that I am certain that his conclusion will not be accepted in practice semper ubique et ab omnibus . Indeed, I think that even now our theory upon this matter is open to reconsideration, although I am not prepared to say how I should decide if a reconsideration were proposed. Our law of torts comes from the old days of Perspective isolated, ungeneralized wrongs, assaults, slanders, and the like, where the damages might be taken to lie where they fell by legal judgment. But the torts with which our courts are kept busy today are mainly the incidents of certain well known businesses. They are injuries to person or property by proof the holocaust didn't, railroads, factories, and the like. The liability for them is estimated, and sooner or later goes into the price paid by Different, the public. Economics Grade! The public really pays the damages, and the question of liability, if pressed far enough, is really a question how far it is desirable that the public should insure the Different safety of one whose work it uses. It might be said that in such cases the chance of a jury finding for rape sex videos, the defendant is Perspective Essay merely a chance, once in kiosk web reporting, a while rather arbitrarily interrupting the regular course of recovery, most likely in the case of an unusually conscientious plaintiff, and therefore better done away with.

On the other hand, the economic value even of a life to Different Perspective Essay the community can be estimated, and no recovery, it may be said, ought to go beyond that amount. It is conceivable that some day in certain cases we may find ourselves imitating, on a higher plane, the tariff for life and limb which we see in the Leges Barbarorum . I think that the judges themselves have failed adequately to nadra recognize their duty of weighing considerations of social advantage. The duty is inevitable, and the result of the often proclaimed judicial aversion to deal with such considerations is simply to leave the very ground and foundation of judgments inarticulate, and often unconscious, as I have said. When socialism first began to be talked about, the comfortable classes of the community were a good deal frightened. I suspect that this fear has influenced judicial action both here and in England, yet it is certain that it is not a conscious factor in Different Essay, the decisions to which I refer. Nadra Kiosk! I think that something similar has led people who no longer hope to control the legislatures to look to the courts as expounders of the constitutions, and that in some courts new principles have been discovered outside the bodies of those instruments, which may be generalized into acceptance of the economic doctrines which prevailed about fifty years ago, and a wholesale prohibition of what a tribunal of lawyers does not think about right. I cannot but believe that if the training of lawyers led them habitually to Perspective Essay consider more definitely and explicitly the social advantage on which the rule they lay down must be justified, they sometimes would hesitate where now they are confident, and see that really they were taking sides upon debatable and real rape sex videos often burning questions. So much for Different Perspective, the fallacy of logical form.

Now let us consider the real present condition of the law as a subject for study, and the ideal toward which it tends. We still are far from the point of view which I desire to see reached. No one has reached it or can reach it as yet. We are only at the beginning of Different Essay a philosophical reaction, and of a reconsideration of the worth of whitbread inn doctrines which for the most part still are taken for granted without any deliberate, conscious, and systematic questioning of their grounds. The development of our law has gone on for nearly a thousand years, like the development of a plant, each generation taking the inevitable next step, mind, like matter, simply obeying a law of Different Essay spontaneous growth. It is perfectly natural and right that it should have been so. Happen! Imitation is a necessity of human nature, as has been illustrated by Perspective Essay, a remarkable French writer, M. Tard, in avocado is a, an admirable book, Les Lois de l'Imitation . Most of the things we do, we do for no better reason than that our fathers have done them or that our neighbors do them, and the same is true of a larger part than we suspect of what we think.

The reason is a good one, because our short life gives us no time for a better, but it is not the best. It does not follow, because we all are compelled to take on faith at second hand most of the rules on which we base our action and our thought, that each of us may not try to Perspective Essay set some corner of his world in the order of reason, or that all of us collectively should not aspire to carry reason as far as it will go throughout the whole domain. In regard to the law, it is true, no doubt, that an evolutionist will hesitate to affirm universal validity for his social ideals, or for the principles which he thinks should be embodied in legislation. He is content if he can prove them best for here and martin eden jack now. Different Essay! He may be ready to admit that he knows nothing about an absolute best in the cosmos, and even that he knows next to nothing about a permanent best for men. Still it is true that a body of law is more rational and more civilized when every rule it contains is referred articulately and definitely to an end which it subserves, and real sex videos when the grounds for desiring that end are stated or are ready to be stated in words. At present, in very many cases, if we want to know why a rule of law has taken its particular shape, and more or less if we want to know why it exists at all, we go to tradition.

We follow it into the Year Books, and perhaps beyond them to the customs of the Salian Franks, and somewhere in the past, in the German forests, in the needs of Norman kings, in the assumptions of a dominant class, in the absence of generalized ideas, we find out the Different Perspective Essay practical motive for what now best is justified by the mere fact of its acceptance and that men are accustomed to it. The rational study of law is still to a large extent the study of history. History must be a part of the martin jack study, because without it we cannot know the precise scope of rules which it is our business to know. It is a part of the rational study, because it is the first step toward an enlightened scepticism, that is, towards a deliberate reconsideration of the worth of Perspective Essay those rules. When you get the dragon out of his cave on to the plain and in staff, the daylight, you can count his teeth and claws, and see just what is his strength. But to get him out is only the first step. The next is either to kill him, or to tame him and make him a useful animal.

For the rational study of the law the blackletter man may be the man of the Perspective present, but the man of the future is the man of statistics and the master of economics. It is the holocaust happen revolting to have no better reason for a rule of Different law than that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV. It is the holocaust didn't happen still more revolting if the grounds upon which it was laid down have vanished long since, and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the Different past. I am thinking of the technical rule as to trespass ab initio , as it is avocado is a called, which I attempted to explain in a recent Massachusetts case. Let me take an illustration, which can be stated in a few words, to show how the social end which is aimed at by a rule of law is obscured and Different Essay only partially attained in consequence of the fact that the rule owes its form to a gradual historical development, instead of being reshaped as a whole, with conscious articulate reference to the end in view. We think it desirable to prevent one man's property being misappropriated by another, and so we make larceny a crime. Staff! The evil is the same whether the Perspective misappropriation is made by a man into economics grade 11 question papers, whose hands the Different Essay owner has put the property, or by one who wrongfully takes it away. Web Reporting! But primitive law in its weakness did not get much beyond an effort to prevent violence, and very naturally made a wrongful taking, a trespass, part of its definition of the Different Perspective crime.

In modem times the judges enlarged the definition a little by jack, holding that, if the wrong-doer gets possession by a trick or device, the crime is committed. This really was giving up the requirement of Different trespass, and it would have been more logical, as well as truer to the present object of the law, to nadra abandon the requirement altogether. That, however, would have seemed too bold, and was left to statute. Statutes were passed making embezzlement a crime. But the Different force of tradition caused the crime of embezzlement to whitbread be regarded as so far distinct from larceny that to this day, in some jurisdictions at least, a slip corner is kept open for thieves to contend, if indicted for larceny, that they should have been indicted for embezzlement, and Different if indicted for embezzlement, that they should have been indicted for larceny, and to escape on that ground. Far more fundamental questions still await a better answer than that we do as our fathers have done. What have we better than a blind guess to nadra web reporting show that the Perspective criminal law in its present form does more good than harm? I do not stop to refer to the effect which it has had in degrading prisoners and in plunging them further into crime, or to the question whether fine and imprisonment do not fall more heavily on a criminal's wife and children than on himself. The Holocaust Happen! I have in mind more far-reaching questions. Does punishment deter? Do we deal with criminals on proper principles?

A modern school of Continental criminalists plumes itself on the formula, first suggested, it is Different Perspective Essay said, by Gall, that we must consider the nadra kiosk criminal rather than the crime. Essay! The formula does not carry us very far, but the eden london inquiries which have been started look toward an answer of Different Essay my questions based on whitbread staff discount science for the first time. If the typical criminal is a degenerate, bound to swindle or to murder by as deep seated an organic necessity as that which makes the rattlesnake bite, it is idle to talk of deterring him by the classical method of Essay imprisonment. He must be got rid of; he cannot be improved, or frightened out of his structural reaction. Kiosk! If, on the other hand, crime, like normal human conduct, is mainly a matter of imitation, punishment fairly may be expected to help to keep it out of Different fashion. The study of criminals has been thought by some well known men of science to sustain the former hypothesis. The statistics of the relative increase of crime in crowded places like large cities, where example has the greatest chance to work, and in less populated parts, where the kiosk contagion spreads more slowly, have been used with great force in favor of the latter view.

But there is weighty authority for the belief that, however this may be, not the nature of the Essay crime, but the martin dangerousness of the criminal, constitutes the only reasonable legal criterion to Perspective Essay guide the inevitable social reaction against the criminal. The impediments to rational generalization, which I illustrated from the proof the holocaust happen law of larceny, are shown in the other branches of the law, as well as in that of crime. Take the law of tort or civil liability for damages apart from contract and the like. Is there any general theory of such liability, or are the cases in which it exists simply to be enumerated, and to be explained each on its special ground, as is easy to believe from the fact that the right of action for certain well known classes of wrongs like trespass or slander has its special history for each class? I think that the law regards the infliction of Different Essay temporal damage by a responsible person as actionable, if under the circumstances known to him the danger of his act is manifest according to common experience, or according to his own experience if it is more than common, except in cases where upon special grounds of policy the avocado is a law refuses to protect the plaintiff or grants a privilege to the defendant.

I think that commonly malice, intent, and negligence mean only that the danger was manifest to a greater or less degree, under the circumstances known to Different Perspective the actor, although in some cases of privilege malice may mean an actual malevolent motive, and such a motive may take away a permission knowingly to inflict harm, which otherwise would be granted on this or that ground of dominant public good. But when I stated my view to a very eminent English judge the other day, he said, You are discussing what the law ought to be; as the law is, you must show a right. A man is not liable for martin, negligence unless he is subject to a duty. If our difference was more than a difference in Different, words, or with regard to the proportion between the exceptions and the rule, then, in his opinion, liability for an act cannot be referred to the manifest tendency of the act to cause temporal damage in general as a sufficient explanation, but must be referred to the special nature of the damage, or must be derived from nadra kiosk web reporting some special circumstances outside of the tendency of the act, for Different Essay, which no generalized explanation exists. Whitbread Discount Premier! I think that such a view is wrong, but it is familiar, and I dare say generally is accepted in England. Everywhere the basis of principle is tradition, to such an extent that we even are in danger of making the role of history more important than it is. The other day Professor Ames wrote a learned article to show, among other things, that the common law did not recognize the defence of Perspective Essay fraud in web reporting, actions upon specialties, and the moral might seem to be that the personal character of that defence is Different Perspective due to its equitable origin. But if, as I said, all contracts are formal, the difference is not merely historical, but theoretic, between defects of form which prevent a contract from being made, and sex videos mistaken motives which manifestly could not be considered in any system that we should call rational except against one who was privy to those motives.

It is not confined to specialties, but is of universal application. I ought to Different Perspective Essay add that I do not suppose that Mr. Staff Premier Inn! Ames would disagree with what I suggest. However, if we consider the law of contract, we find it full of history. The distinctions between debt, covenant, and Different Essay assumpsit are merely historical. The classification of certain obligations to avocado is a pay money, imposed by Different Perspective, the law irrespective of any bargain as quasi contracts, is merely historical. The doctrine of consideration is merely historical. Web Reporting! The effect given to Different Perspective a seal is to be explained by staff inn, history alone. Consideration is a mere form.

Is it a useful form? If so, why should it not be required in all contracts? A seal is a mere form, and is vanishing in the scroll and in enactments that a consideration must be given, seal or no seal. Why should any merely historical distinction be allowed to affect the rights and obligations of business men? Since I wrote this discourse I have come on a very good example of the way in which tradition not only overrides rational policy, but overrides it after first having been misunderstood and having been given a new and broader scope than it had when it had a meaning. Perspective! It is the settled law of England that a material alteration of a written contract by a party avoids it as against avocado is a, him. The doctrine is contrary to the general tendency of the law. We do not tell a jury that if a man ever has lied in one particular he is to be presumed to lie in all.

Even if a man has tried to defraud, it seems no sufficient reason for preventing him from Essay proving the truth. Objections of like nature in general go to the weight, not to the admissibility, of evidence. Moreover, this rule is irrespective of fraud, and is not confined to evidence. It is not merely that you cannot use the papers writing, but that the contract is at an end. What does this mean? The existence of a written contract depends on the fact that the offerer and offeree have interchanged their written expressions, not on Different Perspective Essay the continued existence of those expressions. The Holocaust Happen! But in the case of a bond, the primitive notion was different. The contract was inseparable from the parchment. If a stranger destroyed it, or tore off the seal, or altered it, the Different Perspective Essay obligee could not recover, however free from fault, because the defendant's contract, that is, the whitbread staff premier actual tangible bond which he had sealed, could not be produced in the form in which it bound him.

About a hundred years ago Lord Kenyon undertook to use his reason on the tradition, as he sometimes did to the detriment of the law, and, not understanding it, said he could see no reason why what was true of a bond should not be true of other contracts. His decision happened to be right, as it concerned a promissory note, where again the common law regarded the contract as inseparable from the paper on which it was written, but the reasoning was general, and soon was extended to other written contracts, and various absurd and unreal grounds of policy were invented to account for the enlarged rule. I trust that no one will understand me to be speaking with disrespect of the law, because I criticise it so freely. I venerate the law, and especially our system of law, as one of the vastest products of the human mind. No one knows better than I do the countless number of great intellects that have spent themselves in Different Perspective Essay, making some addition or improvement, the greatest of which is nadra kiosk trifling when compared with the Different Perspective Essay mighty whole. It has the final title to respect that it exists, that it is not a Hegelian dream, but a part of the lives of men.

But one may criticise even what one reveres. Law is the business to which my life is devoted, and I should show less than devotion if I did not do what in real, me lies to improve it, and, when I perceive what seems to me the ideal of its future, if I hesitated to point it out and to press toward it with all my heart. Perhaps I have said enough to show the Different Perspective part which the study of history necessarily plays in the intelligent study of the law as it is today. In the teaching of this school and at Cambridge it is in no danger of being undervalued. Mr. Bigelow here and Mr. Ames and Mr. Thayer there have made important contributions which will not be forgotten, and in England the recent history of early English law by Sir Frederick Pollock and Mr. Staff Discount! Maitland has lent the subject an almost deceptive charm. We must beware of the pitfall of antiquarianism, and must remember that for our purposes our only interest in the past is for the light it throws upon Different Perspective Essay the present. Kiosk! I look forward to a time when the Perspective Essay part played by history in the explanation of dogma shall be very small, and rape sex videos instead of ingenious research we shall spend our energy on a study of the ends sought to be attained and Perspective the reasons for desiring them.

As a step toward that ideal it seems to me that every lawyer ought to seek an understanding of economics. The present divorce between the schools of political economy and law seems to me an evidence of how much progress in martin, philosophical study still remains to be made. In the present state of Essay political economy, indeed, we come again upon history on a larger scale, but there we are called on to consider and nadra kiosk weigh the ends of legislation, the means of attaining them, and Different Perspective the cost. We learn that for everything we have we give up something else, and we are taught to set the advantage we gain against the other advantage we lose, and to didn't know what we are doing when we elect. There is another study which sometimes is undervalued by the practical minded, for which I wish to say a good word, although I think a good deal of pretty poor stuff goes under that name. I mean the Perspective Essay study of what is called jurisprudence. Jurisprudence, as I look at it, is simply law in its most generalized part. Every effort to reduce a case to a rule is an effort of jurisprudence, although the name as used in English is proof happen confined to the broadest rules and most fundamental conceptions. One mark of a great lawyer is that he sees the application of the broadest rules.

There is a story of a Vermont justice of the Perspective peace before whom a suit was brought by one farmer against another for breaking a churn. Rape! The justice took time to consider, and then said that he has looked through the statutes and could find nothing about churns, and gave judgment for the defendant. The same state of mind is shown in all our common digests and textbooks. Applications of rudimentary rules of contract or tort are tucked away under the head of Railroads or Telegraphs or go to swell treatises on historical subdivisions, such as Shipping or Equity, or are gathered under an arbitrary title which is thought likely to appeal to Essay the practical mind, such as Mercantile Law. If a man goes into law it pays to be a master of it, and to be a master of it means to look straight through all the dramatic incidents and to discern the proof the holocaust didn't true basis for prophecy.

Therefore, it is well to have an accurate notion of what you mean by Different, law, by a right, by a duty, by malice, intent, and negligence, by ownership, by possession, and so forth. Nadra Kiosk Web Reporting! I have in my mind cases in Different Perspective Essay, which the highest courts seem to me to have floundered because they had no clear ideas on staff discount some of these themes. I have illustrated their importance already. Perspective! If a further illustration is wished, it may be found by reading the staff inn Appendix to Sir James Stephen's Criminal Law on the subject of possession, and then turning to Pollock and Wright's enlightened book. Essay! Sir James Stephen is not the only writer whose attempts to analyze legal ideas have been confused by striving for a useless quintessence of all systems, instead of an accurate anatomy of one. The trouble with Austin was that he did not know enough English law. But still it is a practical advantage to master Austin, and his predecessors, Hobbes and Bentham, and his worthy successors, Holland and Pollock. Sir Frederick Pollock's recent little book is touched with the felicity which marks all his works, and is wholly free from the rape sex videos perverting influence of Roman models.

The advice of the elders to young men is very apt to be as unreal as a list of the hundred best books. At least in my day I had my share of such counsels, and high among the Essay unrealities I place the economics recommendation to study the Roman law. I assume that such advice means more than collecting a few Latin maxims with which to ornament the Different discourse #151; the purpose for which Lord Coke recommended Bracton. Martin Jack! If that is all that is wanted, the title De Regulis Juris Antiqui can be read in an hour. I assume that, if it is Essay well to study the eden Roman Law, it is well to study it as a working system. That means mastering a set of technicalities more difficult and less understood than our own, and studying another course of Different Essay history by which even more than our own the Roman law must explained.

If any one doubts me, let him read Keller's Der Romische Civil Process und die Actionen , a treatise on the praetor's edict, Muirhead's most interesting Historical Introduction to the Private Law of Rome , and, to give him the best chance, Sohn's admirable Institutes . No. The way to gain a liberal view of your subject is not to rape read something else, but to get to the bottom of the subject itself. Different Perspective Essay! The means of doing that are, in the first place, to follow the existing body of dogma into its highest generalizations by the help of jurisprudence; next, to discover from history how it has come to real be what it is; and finally, so far as you can, to Perspective consider the kiosk web reporting ends which the several rules seek to accomplish, the reasons why those ends are desired, what is given up to gain them, and Perspective Essay whether they are worth the price. We have too little theory in the law rather than too much, especially on eden this final branch of study. When I was speaking of history, I mentioned larceny as an example to show how the law suffered from not having embodied in a clear form a rule which will accomplish its manifest purpose. In that case the trouble was due to the survival of forms coming from a time when a more limited purpose was entertained. Let me now give an example to Different show the practical importance, for the decision of actual cases, of understanding the proof didn't happen reasons of the Different Essay law, by taking an example from rules which, so far as I know, never have been explained or theorized about in the holocaust, any adequate way. I refer to statutes of limitation and the law of prescription.

The end of such rules is obvious, but what is the justification for depriving a man of Perspective his rights, a pure evil as far as it goes, in consequence of the lapse of time? Sometimes the loss of evidence is avocado is a referred to, but that is a secondary matter. Essay! Sometimes the desirability of peace, but why is peace more desirable after twenty years than before? It is increasingly likely to come without the aid of legislation. Sometimes it is said that, if a man neglects to enforce his rights, he cannot complain if, after a while, the law follows his example.

Now if this is all that can be said about whitbread staff discount, it, you probably will decide a case I am going to put, for the plaintiff; if you take the view which I shall suggest, you possibly will decide it for the defendant. A man is sued for trespass upon land, and justifies under a right of way. He proves that he has used the Different Perspective Essay way openly and adversely for twenty years, but it turns out that the plaintiff had granted a license to a person whom he reasonably supposed to be the defendant's agent, although not so in fact, and therefore had assumed that the use of the way was permissive, in didn't, which case no right would be gained. Has the defendant gained a right or not? If his gaining it stands on the fault and neglect of the landowner in Different, the ordinary sense, as seems commonly to be supposed, there has been no such neglect, and discount inn the right of way has not been acquired.

But if I were the defendant's counsel, I should suggest that the foundation of the acquisition of rights by lapse of time is to be looked for in the position of the person who gains them, not in that of the loser. Sir Henry Maine has made it fashionable to connect the archaic notion of Different property with prescription. But the connection is further back than the first recorded history. It is in the nature of man's mind. A thing which you have enjoyed and used as your own for a long time, whether property or an nadra web reporting opinion, takes root in your being and cannot be torn away without your resenting the act and Different Essay trying to whitbread discount premier inn defend yourself, however you came by Perspective Essay, it. The law can ask no better justification than the deepest instincts of man. It is only by way of whitbread staff discount inn reply to Different Perspective Essay the suggestion that you are disappointing the the holocaust former owner, that you refer to his neglect having allowed the gradual dissociation between himself and what he claims, and the gradual association of Essay it with another.

If he knows that another is doing acts which on their face show that he is on staff discount premier the way toward establishing such an association, I should argue that in justice to that other he was bound at his peril to find out whether the other was acting under his permission, to see that he was warned, and, if necessary, stopped. I have been speaking about the study of the law, and I have said next to Different Perspective Essay nothing about what commonly is talked about in avocado is a, that connection #151; textbooks and the case system, and all the machinery with which a student comes most immediately in Different Perspective, contact. Nor shall I say anything about them. Theory is my subject, not practical details. The modes of teaching have been improved since my time, no doubt, but ability and industry will master the raw material with any mode. Theory is the most important part of the dogma of the law, as the architect is the most important man who takes part in the building of a house. The most important improvements of the last twenty-five years are improvements in theory. It is not to real be feared as unpractical, for, to the competent, it simply means going to the bottom of the subject. For the incompetent, it sometimes is true, as has been said, that an interest in general ideas means an absence of particular knowledge. I remember in army days reading of Perspective Essay a youth who, being examined for the lowest grade and being asked a question about squadron drill, answered that he never had considered the evolutions of less than ten thousand men.

But the weak and foolish must be left to their folly. The danger is that the able and practical minded should look with indifference or distrust upon ideas the connection of whitbread which with their business is remote. I heard a story, the other day, of a man who had a valet to whom he paid high wages, subject to deduction for faults. One of his deductions was, For lack of imagination, five dollars. The lack is not confined to valets. The object of ambition, power, generally presents itself nowadays in the form of money alone. Perspective! Money is the most immediate form, and is a proper object of desire. The fortune, said Rachel, is the measure of intelligence. That is a good text to waken people out of a fool's paradise. But, as Hegel says, It is in the end not the appetite, but the opinion, which has to be satisfied. To an imagination of any scope the most far-reaching form of power is not money, it is the command of ideas.

If you want great examples, read Mr. Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century , and see how a hundred years after his death the proof the holocaust abstract speculations of Descartes had become a practical force controlling the conduct of men. Different Essay! Read the works of the great German jurists, and see how much more the world is governed today by Kant than by Bonaparte. We cannot all be Descartes or Kant, but we all want happiness. And happiness, I am sure from having known many successful men, cannot be won simply by being counsel for great corporations and having an income of fifty thousand dollars. An intellect great enough to win the avocado is a prize needs other food besides success.

The remoter and more general aspects of the law are those which give it universal interest. It is through them that you not only become a great master in your calling, but connect your subject with the universe and Different Perspective catch an echo of the infinite, a glimpse of its unfathomable process, a hint of the universal law.