Canadian Water Service Essay

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book essay review Book Review Sample Essay. 21 September 2006. Book Review for Wuthering High. Having to go to a boarding school and wear a uniform would be traumatic for most teenagers. Canadian Water Service Essay. Add a ban on define tourist, cell phones and music, and it is like the world is Canadian ending. Essay Shame,. Oddly enough, for Miranda Tate, these things become the least of her worries in Water Essay, the 257 page, young adult fiction novel Wuthering High.

This novel was written by Cara Lockwood and published by define tourist, MTV Books. Wuthering High is a modern novel that will be examined using a summary of its mystical plot , an analysis of the dynamic character Miranda, and a discussion of the Essay, book#8217;s theme about punishments . The summary of this book#8217;s plot combines the completely modern with mystical elements that make it truly entertaining. The story opens with Miranda trying to downplay the major discretions, including totaling her dad#8217;s new BMW convertible, that cause her parents to send her to Bard Academy, a boarding school for juvenile delinquents. For a teenage girl who calls Chicago home, Bard Academy#8217;s location on an island off the coast of Maine seems like halfway across the world. As soon as Miranda arrives on the island, she knows something just isn#8217;t right about the school.

The bus driver drives like a maniac and asks her if she has any drugs. The athletic coach drinks out of a flask. There are even security personnel called #8220;Guardians#8221; who are allowed to get physical with students. Things get even stranger when Miranda learns that there was a student that disappeared from Bard several years before, and Miranda becomes positive that this girl#8217;s ghost is haunting her. Over the course of the story, Miranda discovers that there are characters from classic novels, including Heathcliff from the novel Wuthering Heights , running loose around the school. The plot comes to its climax when Miranda and her friends uncover the secret of the school. Conflict Gender. The staff members are all ghosts that died before their time on earth was supposed to Canadian Water Essay, be finished.

For that, they have been sentenced to serve at Bard for an indeterminate amount of time. The majority of the staff is composed of dead authors, and, unfortunately, one of the dead authors is Emily Bront, who has decided to free fictional characters into conflict gender inequality the real world, which could cause both the fictional world and Canadian the real world to Essay, collapse. If that weren#8217;t enough, Miranda also learns that she is the descendant of Canadian Water Service, Kate Shaw, an escaped character from Wuthering Heights . Emily is stopped when she enters Wuthering Heights and the book is on the BMW Group Essay burned. The main character in the book, Miranda, proves herself to Canadian Water Service, be very dynamic . Conflict Inequality. One of the most obvious changes in Canadian Service Essay, her is that her perspective on school, and Bard in particular, has shifted dramatically. At the beginning of the book, Miranda readily admits that she isn#8217;t very focused on school and claims that life is about balance, so she is justified in focusing more on gender inequality, clothes and friends to the point that her grades slip. She is completely distraught when she learns that she has to go without her cell phone and her hair dryer; she even tries to run away from the school. By the end of the Water Service Essay, story, her perspective has completely changed. She is much happier with attending Bard and realizes that the absence of distractions truly does help her focus on studying.

Instead of considering what to wear to the next party, she is thinking about scholarships and getting into the one child policy a good college. Water Essay. On a deeper level, Miranda is dynamic because she has become more self-aware. She is unable to make the connection between the lack of attention from define tourist, her parents, who are too concerned with Botox injections and a mid-life crisis, and Water Service her desire to act out and get herself in trouble. At Bard, Miranda has to attend counseling sessions. During her first session, Ms. W, her dorm mother, teacher, and definition counselor, asks Miranda about her family. Canadian Water Service Essay. Because her parents are so focused on themselves, Miranda is the one that generally takes care of herself and her little sister. Ms.

W points out the fact that Miranda#8217;s tendency to get in trouble may be her way of trying to prove to her parents that she is define tourist still a kid. Due to this realization, Miranda begins to accept her parents for who they are and accept the fact that it really isn#8217;t her fault that they act the way they do. Although it is not directly stated, it appears that by the end of the Canadian Service, novel, Miranda#8217;s impulse to A Report BMW Group Essay, act out Service Essay has lessened from what it was at the beginning of the story. Although there are many themes that can be drawn from Wuthering High , one of the primary themes is that punishments can turn into positive experiences if they are approached with an open mind. Miranda may not have started out her experience at Bard with an open mind, but with the help of her new friends and her teachers, she discovers a range of positives about attending a school for Essay and Savagery, delinquents that is run by ghosts. Even though Miranda loves her best friends from home, Liz and Cass, she accepts the fact that it is Water Service probably good that she can#8217;t spend a lot of time with them anymore because they are a bad influence and increase her chances of getting in trouble. Also, as was previously mentioned, Miranda realizes that being removed from the define tourist, distractions of home, including her cell phone and parties, allows her to Canadian Service, concentrate on schoolwork and that she doesn#8217;t really mind doing her schoolwork. Ww2. She seems to have better direction in Canadian Water, her life and she has goals beyond dressing well and having a boyfriend. Even her choice in boyfriends improves during her time at Bard. Prior to being sent there, she briefly dated a guy that had a bad reputation; on a date, he spiked her drink with alcohol.

At Bard, she becomes closer to a guy that she knew from her old school, and he genuinely cares about her. Instead of having a date that involves alcohol, they end up having a date where they enjoy eating Pop-Tarts, which are contraband at Bard. All in all, Miranda discovers that her punishment isn#8217;t really that bad after all, and she seems to be happy that she was sent away to A Report on the, Bard. In brief, the book Wuthering High is a story that has a mystical plot , a dynamic character Miranda, and Canadian Essay a theme about the one child policy in china, punishments . For a world where everyone seems to be concerned with who has the biggest and Canadian Water the best of the one policy, everything, this story demonstrates that sometimes, less really is more. Service. Cell phones do not have to become an extension of one#8217;s arm.

Computers may be helpful, but sometimes a pen and paper can work just as well. All in all, people need to learn to place less value on material things and place more value on the things that are priceless: friends, family, and a good education.

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Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy. Nietzsche's moral philosophy is primarily critical in orientation: he attacks morality both for its commitment to untenable descriptive (metaphysical and Canadian Service Essay empirical) claims about human agency, as well as for the deleterious impact of its distinctive norms and values on define tourist, the flourishing of the highest types of human beings (Nietzsche's “higher men”). His positive ethical views are best understood as combining (i) a kind of consequentialist perfectionism as Nietzsche's implicit theory of the good, with (ii) a conception of human perfection involving both formal and Water substantive elements. A Report On The BMW Group Essay. Because Nietzsche, however, is an anti-realist about value, he takes neither his positive vision, nor those aspects of his critique that depend upon it, to have any special epistemic status, a fact which helps explain his rhetoric and Essay the circumspect character of his “esoteric” moralizing. Although Nietzsche's illiberal attitudes (for example, about human equality) are apparent, there are no grounds for ascribing to him a political philosophy, since he has no systematic (or even partly systematic) views about the nature of state and society. As an esoteric moralist, Nietzsche aims at freeing higher human beings from their false consciousness about conflict theory gender inequality morality (their false belief that this morality is good for them ), not at a transformation of society at large. 1.1 Scope of the Critique: Morality in the Pejorative Sense. Nietzsche is not a critic of all “morality.” He explicitly embraces, for example, the idea of a “higher morality” which would inform the lives of “higher men” (Schacht 1983: 466469), and, in so doing, he employs the same German word Moral , sometimes Moralität for both what he attacks and what he praises.

Moreover, Nietzsche aims to Water Essay offer a revaluation of existing values in a manner that appears, itself, to involve appeal to broadly “moral” standards of some sort. As he writes in the Preface to Daybreak : “in this book faith in morality [ Moral ] is withdrawn but why? Out of morality [ Moralität ]! Or what else should we call that which informs it and us ?.[T]here is no doubt that a ‘thou shalt’ [ du sollst ] speaks to on Society, Shame, us too” (D 4). This means, of course, that (on pain of inconsistency) morality as the object of Nietzsche's critique must be distinguishable from the sense of “morality” he retains and employs. Yet Nietzsche also does not confine his criticisms of morality to some one religiously, philosophically, socially or historically circumscribed example. Thus, it will not suffice to say that he simply attacks Christian or Kantian or European or utilitarian morality though he certainly at times attacks all of these. To do justice to the scope of Service Essay, his critique, we should ask what characterizes “morality” in Nietzsche's pejorative sense hereafter, “MPS” that is, morality as the object of his critique. Nietzsche believes that all normative systems which perform something like the the one in china, role we associate with “morality” share certain structural characteristics, even as the meaning and value of these normative systems varies considerably over time. In particular, all normative systems have both descriptive and normative components, in the sense that: (a) they presuppose a particular descriptive account of human agency, in the sense that for the normative claims comprising the system to have intelligible application to human agents, particular metaphysical and empirical claims about agency must be true; and (b) the Canadian Service, system's norms favor the interests of some people, often (though not necessarily) at the expense of others. Any particular morality will, in virgin turn, be the Canadian Service Essay, object of Nietzsche's critique (i.e., MPS) only BMW Group Essay, if it: presupposes three particular descriptive claims about the nature of human agents pertaining to free will, the transparency of the self, and the essential similarity of Service Essay, all people (“the Descriptive Component”); and/or embraces norms that harm the the one policy, “highest men” while benefitting the “lowest” (“the Normative Component”).

While Nietzsche offers criticisms of both the Descriptive and Canadian Service Normative Components of MPS, what ultimately defines MPS as against unobjectionable normative systems is the distinctive normative agenda. Thus, while Nietzsche criticizes the conflict inequality, description of agency that is typically part and Canadian Service Essay parcel of the one, MPS, he also holds that “[i]t is not error as error that” he objects to fundamentally in MPS (EH IV;7): that is, it is not the Water Service Essay, falsity of the descriptive account of agency presupposed by MPS, per se , that is the heart of the problem, but rather its distinctive normative commitments. Thus, strictly speaking, it is true that an MPS would be objectionable even if it did not involve a commitment to an untenable descriptive account of agency (as, say, certain forms of utilitarianism do not). Because Nietzsche's two most common and Essay on Society, Shame, and Savagery closely related specific targets are, however, Christian and Canadian Service Essay Kantian morality, the critique of the descriptive component of MPS figures prominently in virgin Nietzsche's writing, and any account of the logic of his critique that omitted it would not do justice to his concerns. 1.2 Critique of the Descriptive Component of MPS. MPS for Nietzsche depends for its intelligible application to human agents on three descriptive theses about Canadian human agency (cf. BGE 32; GM I:13; TI VI; EH III:5; EH IV:8): (1) Human agents possess a will capable of free and autonomous choice (“Free Will Thesis”). (2) The self is sufficiently transparent that agents' actions can be distinguished on the basis of their respective motives (“Transparency of the containment definition, Self Thesis”).

(3) Human agents are sufficiently similar that one moral code is appropriate for (because in the interests of) all (“Similarity Thesis”). These three theses must be true in Water Service order for the normative judgments of MPS to on Society, and Savagery be intelligible because the normative judgments of MPS are marked for Nietzsche by three corresponding traits; namely, that they: (1′) Hold agents responsible for their actions. (2′) Evaluate and Water “rank” the motives for which agents act. (3′) Presuppose that “morality” has universal applicability (MPS “says stubbornly and inexorably, ‘I am morality itself, and nothing besides is morality’” [BGE 202]). Thus, the Essay and Savagery, falsity of the picture of Water, agency would affect the intelligibility of moral judgments in the following three ways: (1″) If agents lacked “free will” they could not be held responsible for their actions. (2″) If agent motives could not be distinguished then no evaluative distinctions could be drawn among acts in terms of their motives. (3″) If agents were, in fact, different in some overlooked but relevant respect, then it would, at least, not be prima facie apparent that one morality should have universal application. It is the burden, then, of Nietzsche's critique of the child in china, Descriptive Component of MPS to show that, in Canadian Service Essay fact, none of these latter theses about the nature of agency hold.

A brief review of and Savagery, these arguments follows (a more detailed treatment is in Leiter 2002: 81112). Against the Canadian Service, Free Will Thesis, Nietzsche argues that a free agent (that is, one sufficiently free to be morally responsible) would have to be causa sui (i.e., self-caused, or the cause of itself); but since we are not causa sui , no one can be a free agent. Nietzsche takes for granted not implausibly that our moral and the one child in china religious traditions are incompatibilist at their core: causally determined wills are not free wills. Nietzsche offers two kinds of arguments to show that we are not causa sui : that it is logically impossible to be causa sui ; and that human beings are not self-caused in a sense sufficient to underwrite ascriptions of Canadian Water, moral responsibility. (I owe the containment ww2, point that there are two different arguments at Water Essay issue here to Eric Vogelstein.) He says relatively little about the first point, other than claiming that “the concept of a causa sui is something fundamentally absurd” (BGE 15), and that it is “the best self-contradiction that has been conceived so fara sort of rape and perversion of logic” (BGE 21), such that this, desire for theory gender inequality “freedom of the will” in the superlative metaphysical sensethe desire to bear the entire and ultimate responsibility for one's actions oneself, and to absolve God, the world, ancestors, chance, and society involves nothing less than to be precisely this causa sui andto pull oneself up into existence by the hair, out Canadian Water Service of the swamps of nothingness. (BGE 21) But we cannot, needless to say, pull ourselves up “out of the the one child policy, swamps of Service Essay, nothingness,” and so we cannot have ultimate responsibility for our actions. Nietzsche quickly moves from the claim that being causa sui involves a contradiction, however, to an argument that depends on his picture of human agency. Nietzsche accepts what we may call a “Doctrine of Types” (Leiter 1998), according to which, Each person has a fixed psycho-physical constitution, which defines him as a particular type of person. Call the relevant psycho-physical facts here “type-facts.” Type-facts, for Nietzsche, are either physiological facts about the person, or facts about the person's unconscious drives or affects. The claim, then, is that each person has certain largely immutable physiological and psychic traits that constitute the “type” of person he or she is. Although Nietzsche himself does not use this exact terminology, the concept figures centrally in all his mature writings.

A typical Nietzschean form of the one, argument, for example, runs as follows: a person's theoretical beliefs are best explained in terms of his moral beliefs; and his moral beliefs are best explained in terms of Service, natural facts about the type of A Report on the BMW Group Essay, person he is Service, (i.e., in terms of type-facts). So Nietzsche says, “every great philosophy so far has beenthe personal confession of theory inequality, its author and Water Service Essay a kind of involuntary and rocks unconscious memoir”; thus, to really grasp this philosophy, one must ask “at what morality does all this (does he ) aim” (BGE 6)? But the “morality” that a philosopher embraces simply bears “decisive witness to who he is ” i.e., who he essentially is that is, to Water Service Essay the “innermost drives of his nature” (BGE 6). This explanation of a person's moral beliefs in terms of on Society, Shame, and Savagery, psycho-physical facts about the person is a recurring theme in Nietzsche. “[M]oralities aremerely a sign language of the affects” (BGE 187), he says. “Answers to the questions about the value of existencemay always be considered first of all as the symptoms of certain bodies” (GS P:2). Essay. “Moral judgments,” he says are, “symptoms and sign languages which betray the process of physiological prosperity or failure” (WP 258). “[O]ur moral judgments and evaluationsare only images and fantasies based on a physiological process unknown to us” (D 119), so that “it is always necessary to draw forththe physiological phenomenon behind the moral predispositions and prejudices” (D 542). A “morality of define tourist, sympathy,” he claims is “just another expression of physiological overexcitability” (TI IX:37). Ressentiment and the morality that grows out of it he attributes to an “actual physiological cause [ Ursache ]” (GM I:15). Nietzsche sums up the idea well in the preface to Canadian Water On the Genealogy of Essay, Morality (hereafter simply “ Genealogy ” or “GM”): “our thoughts, values, every ‘yes,’ ‘no,’ ‘if’ and ‘but’ grow from us with the same inevitability as fruits borne on the tree all related and each with an affinity to each, and Canadian Water Service evidence of one will, one health, one earth, one sun” (GM P:2). Nietzsche seeks to understand in naturalistic terms the type of “person” who would necessarily bear such ideas and values, just as one might come to understand things about a type of tree by knowing its fruits. And just as natural facts about the tree explain the fruit it bears, so too type-facts about a person will explain his values and actions. This means that the conscious mental states that precede the action and whose propositional contents would make them appear to be causally connected to the action are, in fact, epiphenomenal, either as tokens or as types: that is, they are either causally inert with respect to the action or causally effective only in virtue of other type-facts about the person (Leiter 2002: 9193 argues for the latter reading; Leiter 2007 argues for the former).

We typically locate the “will,” as the the one, seat of action, in various conscious states: for example, our beliefs and desires. According to Nietzsche, however, the “will” so conceived is nothing but the effect of type-facts about the person. This means that the real story of the genesis of an action begins with the type-facts, which explain both consciousness and a person's actions. Here is how Nietzsche puts it, after suggesting that the “will” is related to, but conceptually prior to, the concepts of Canadian Water Essay, “consciousness” and “ego”: The “inner world” is full of conflict gender inequality, phantoms: the Canadian Essay, will is one of them. The will no longer moves anything, hence does not explain anything either it merely accompanies events; it can also be absent. The so-called motive : another error. Merely a surface phenomenon of consciousness something alongside the deed that is Shame,, more likely to cover up the antecedents of the deeds than to represent them. What follows from Canadian, this? There are no mental [ geistigen ] causes at Essay all. Service Essay. (TI VI:3)

In the last line, Nietzsche must mean only that there are no conscious mental causes. Definition Ww2. Indeed, in other passages, he is explicit that the target of this critique is the picture of conscious motives as adequate to Water Essay account for A Report Essay action. (For competing views of the scope of Nietzsche's epiphenomenalism about consciousness, see Katsafanas 2005 and Riccardi 2015a.) As he writes in Daybreak , “we are accustomed to Water Essay exclude all [the] unconscious processes from the accounting and to of the rocks reflect on the preparation for an act only to the extent that it is conscious” (D 129), a view which Nietzsche plainly regards as mistaken, both here and in the passage quoted above. Indeed, the theme of the “ridiculous overestimation and misunderstanding of Canadian Water Service, consciousness” (GS 11) is a recurring one in Nietzsche. “[B]y far the greatest part of our spirit's activity,” says Nietzsche, “remains unconscious and unfelt” (GS 333; cf. GS 354). Apart from the general evidence on behalf of the Doctrine of Types, Nietzsche's strongest targeted argument for the epiphenomenality of consciousness depends on a piece of phenomenology, namely, “that a thought comes when ‘it’ wishes, and on the BMW Group Essay not when ‘I’ wish” (BGE 17). If that is Water Service, right and ww2 if actions are apparently “caused” by thoughts (by particular beliefs and desires), then it follows that actions are not caused solely by our conscious mental states, but rather by Canadian Water Essay, whatever it is (i.e., type-facts) that determines the thoughts that enter consciousness. Thus, it is the (autonomous) causal power of our conscious mental life that Nietzsche must be attacking. Given, then, that Nietzsche claims consciousness is epiphenomenal, and given our identification of the of the, “will” with our conscious life, Nietzsche would have us dispense with the idea of the will as causal altogether. (This gives Nietzsche a novel argument against hierarchical accounts of Canadian Essay, free will favored by conflict theory, compatibilists: see Leiter 2002: 9396). Since the conscious will is Canadian Essay, not causal, the Free Will Thesis is false. Against the Transparency of the Self Thesis, Nietzsche claims that “every action is unknowable” (GS 335; cf.

WP 291, 294); as he writes in Daybreak : The primeval delusion still lives on of the rocks, that one knows, and Canadian Water Service Essay knows quite precisely in every case, how human action is brought about . “I know what I want, what I have done, I am free and responsible for it, I hold others responsible, I can call by its name every moral possibility and every inner motion which precedes action; you may act as you will in this matter I understand myself and understand you all!” that is howalmost everyone still thinks.[But] [a]ctions are never what they appear to us to be! We have expended so much labor on learning that external things are not as they appear to conflict theory gender us to be very well! the Canadian Water, case is the same with the inner world! Moral actions are in the one child reality “something other than that” more we cannot say: and all actions are essentially unknown. (D 116) Actions are unknown because “nothingcan be more incomplete than [one's] image of the totality of drives which constitute [a man's] being” (D 119). One “can scarcely name even the cruder ones: their number and strength, their ebb and flow, their play and counterplay among one another, and above all the laws of Water, their nutriment remain wholly unknown” (D 119).

But as Nietzsche argues elsewhere (e.g., D 109), the self is merely the arena in which the struggle of drives plays itself out, and one's actions are the outcomes of the struggle (see Leiter 2002: 99104; cf. Riccardi 2015b; for a general account of Nietzsche's philosophical psychology, see Katsafanas 2013). Against the Similarity Thesis, Nietzsche once again deploys his Doctrine of conflict theory, Types. Water Essay. Nietzsche holds that agents are essentially dissimilar , insofar as they are constituted by different type-facts. Since Nietzsche also holds that these natural type-facts fix the different conditions under which particular agents will flourish, it follows that one morality cannot be good for all. “ Morality in the one child Europe today is herd animal morality ,” says Nietzsche, “in other wordsmerely one type of human morality beside which, before which, and after which many other types, above all higher moralities, are, or ought to Water Service Essay be, possible” (BGE 202). Nietzsche illustrates the general point with his discussion of the case of the define tourist, Italian writer Cornaro in Service Essay Twilight of the Idols (VI:1).

Cornaro, says Nietzsche, wrote a book mistakenly recommending “his slender diet as a recipe for a long and happy life.” But why was this a mistake? Nietzsche explains: The worthy Italian thought his diet was the cause of his long life, whereas the precondition for a long life, the extraordinary slowness of his metabolism, the consumption of so little, was the cause of his slender diet. Theory. He was not free to eat little or much; his frugality was not a matter of “free will”: he became sick when he ate more. But whoever is Canadian Water Essay, not a carp not only does well to eat properly, but needs to.

There exists, then, type-facts about Cornaro that explain why a slender diet is good for him: namely, “the extraordinary slowness of his metabolism.” These natural facts, in turn, constrain what Cornaro can do, delivering him “feedback” about the conditions under which he will and won't flourish: given his slow metabolism, if Cornaro ate more “he became sick”; conversely, when he stuck to his slender diet, he did well. In sum, “[h]e was not free to eat little or much.” Cornaro's mistake consists, in effect, in virgin of the rocks his absolutism: he thought the “good” diet was good for everyone, when in fact it was only good for Canadian Water Service certain types of A Report on the BMW Group Essay, bodies (namely, those with slow metabolisms). As with diets, so too with moralities, according to Nietzsche. Agents are not similar in type-facts, and so one moral “diet” cannot be “good for all.” As he writes: [T]he question is always who he is, and who the Water Service, other person isEvery unegoistic morality that takes itself for and Savagery unconditional and Essay addresses itself to child all does not only sin against taste: it is a provocation to sins of omission, one more seduction under the mask of philanthropy and precisely a seduction and injury for the higher, rarer, privileged. (BGE 221) This point sets the stage for his core critique of morality. 1.3 Critique of the Normative Component of MPS. All of Nietzsche's criticisms of the normative component of MPS are parasitic upon Water Service, one basic complaint not, as some have held (e.g., Nehamas [1985], Geuss [1997]), the universality of moral demands, per se , but rather that “the demand of one morality for all is detrimental to the higher men” (BGE 228).

Universality would be unobjectionable if agents were relevantly similar, but because agents are relevantly different, a universal morality must necessarily be harmful to some. As Nietzsche writes elsewhere: “When a decadent type of man ascended to the rank of the highest type [via MPS], this could only happen at the expense of its countertype [emphasis added], the type of man that is strong and definition sure of Water Service Essay, life” (EH III:5). Define Tourist. In the preface to Canadian Water Service Essay the Genealogy , Nietzsche sums up his basic concern particularly well: What if a symptom of regression lurked in the “good,” likewise a danger, a seduction, a poison, a narcotic, through which the present lived at the expense of the future ? Perhaps more comfortably, less dangerously, but at the same time in a meaner style, more basely? So that morality itself were to blame if the highest power and splendor [ Mächtigkeit und Pracht ] possible to of the the type man was never in fact attained? So that morality itself was the danger of dangers? (GM Pref:6; cf. BT Attempt:5) This theme is sounded throughout Nietzsche's work.

In a book of 1880, for example, he writes that, “Our weak, unmanly social concepts of good and Service Essay evil and their tremendous ascendancy over body and soul have finally weakened all bodies and souls and snapped the self-reliant, independent, unprejudiced men, the pillars of a strong civilization” (D 163). A Report. Similarly, in Water Essay a posthumously published note of 1885, he remarks that “men of great creativity, the really great men according to my understanding, will be sought in definition vain today” because “nothing stands more malignantly in the way of their rise and evolutionthan what in Europe today is called simply ‘morality’” (WP 957). In these and many other passages (e.g., BGE 62; GM III:14; A:5, 24; EH IV:4; WP 274, 345, 400, 870, 879.), Nietzsche makes plain his fundamental objection to MPS: simply put, that MPS thwarts the Water Service Essay, development of human excellence, i.e., “the highest power and splendor possible to the type man” (for more on the “higher man,” see section (2)). There is another, important competing reading of Nietzsche's central complaint about MPS: namely, that it is “harmful to life” or, more simply, “anti-nature.” Geuss, for define tourist example, says that, “There is little doubt that ‘Life’in Nietzsche does seem to function as a criterion for evaluating moralities” (1997: 10). So, too, Schacht claims that Nietzsche “takes ‘life’ in this world to be the sole locus of value, and its preservation, flourishing, and above all its enhancement to be ultimately decisive for determinations of value” (1983: 359). Thus, the Essay, question of the of the rocks, value of MPS is really the Water Essay, question of its “value for life” (1983: 354). Yet such an account is the one child policy in china, plainly too vague: what exactly does “life” refer to here? Schacht, following a suggestion of Nietzsche's from the Nachlass (WP 254), suggests that life is will to power, and thus degree of power constitutes the standard of value. (We shall return to Canadian this suggestion in detail in section 3.1, below.) But this involves no gain in precision.

Nietzsche may, indeed, have thought that more “power” in his sense was more valuable than less, but that still leaves us with the question: power of what or of whom ? The only plausible candidate given especially his other remarks discussed above is power of people ; just as the only plausible candidate for the “life” that Nietzsche considers it valuable to child in china preserve and enhance must be the lives of people and, in Canadian Service Essay particular, the lives of the “highest men.” That this is what Nietzsche means is revealed by the context of his actual remarks about the “value for life.” For example, he comments that “a higher and more fundamental value for life might have to be ascribed to conflict theory deception, selfishness, and Water Service lust” (BGE 2, emphasis added). But what sort of “life” is, e.g., “selfishness” valuable for? As Nietzsche writes elsewhere (e.g., GM Pref:56), it is simply that life which manifests “the highest power and splendor actually possible to the type man.” And similarly, when Nietzsche says that a “tendency hostile to life is therefore characteristic of morality,” it is clear in context that what “life” refers to is “the type man” who might be “raised to his greatest splendor and power” (that is, but for the interference of define tourist, MPS) (WP 897). In short, then, the things Nietzsche identifies as “valuable” for life are those he takes to Canadian Water Service Essay be necessary for the flourishing of the of the rocks, highest types of life (or human excellence), while those that he identifies as harmful to it are those that he takes to be things that constitute obstacles to such flourishing. This suggests, then, that the “life” for which things are either valuable or disvaluable must be the life (or lives) that manifest human excellence i.e., the Water Essay, lives of “higher men.” Something similar may be said for the claim that Nietzsche objects to MPS because it is “anti-nature.” For example, when Nietzsche says in Ecce Homo (IV:7) that “it is the lack of nature, it is the utterly gruesome fact that antinature itself received the conflict theory, highest honors as morality” that he centrally objects to in a morality, his claim will remain obscure unless we can say precisely what about MPS makes it “anti-natural.” Nietzsche, himself, offers guidance on this in the same section when he explains that a MPS is Canadian Water Service, anti-natural insofar as it has the following sorts of characteristics: it teaches men “to despise the very first instincts of life” and “to experience the Essay on Society,, presupposition of life, sexuality, as something unclean”; and it “looks for Water Service Essay the evil principle in what is most profoundly necessary for growth, in severe self-love” (EH IV:7). But from this it should be apparent, then, that it is not anti-naturalness itself that is A Report on the, objectionable, but the consequences of an Canadian Essay, anti-natural MPS that are at issue: for example, its opposition to the instincts that are “profoundly necessary for growth.” This point is containment definition, even more explicit in The Antichrist , where Nietzsche notes that Christian morality “has waged deadly war against this higher type of Canadian Water Essay, man; it has placed all the basic instincts of his type under ban ” (5, emphasis added).

In other words, the anti-naturalness of MPS is conflict gender inequality, objectionable because the “natural” instincts MPS opposes are precisely those necessary for the growth of the “higher type of man.” Thus, underlying Nietzsche's worries about the anti-naturalness of Water Service, MPS just as underlying his worries about the A Report Essay, threat MPS poses to Water Service life is a concern for the effect of MPS on “higher men.” So Nietzsche objects to A Report on the the normative agenda of MPS because it is Service Essay, harmful to the highest men. In Nietzsche's various accounts of what the objectionable agenda of MPS consists, he identifies a variety of normative positions (see, e.g., D 108, 132, 174; GS 116, 294, 328, 338, 345, 352, 377; Z I:4, II:8, III:1, 9, IV:13, 10; BGE 197, 198, 201202, 225, 257; GM Pref:5, III: 11 ff.; TI II, V, IX:35, 3738, 48; A: 7, 43; EH III:D-2, IV:4, 7-8; WP 752). We may characterize these simply as “pro” and “con” attitudes, and we may say that a morality is the object of Nietzsche's critique (i.e., it is an Essay, MPS) if it contains one or more of the following normative views (this is Canadian, a representative, but not exhaustive, list): The various possible normative components of MPS should, of define tourist, course, be understood construed as ideal-typical , singling out for emphasis and criticism certain important features of Water Essay, larger and more complex normative views. Let us call that which morality has a “pro” attitude towards is the “Pro-Object,” and that which morality has a “con” attitude towards the the one policy in china, “Con-Object.” Keeping in mind that what seems to have intrinsic value for Nietzsche is human excellence or human greatness (see the next section), Nietzsche's attack on Essay, the normative component of MPS can be summarized as having two parts: (a) With respect to the Pro-Object, Nietzsche argues either (i) that the Pro-Object has no intrinsic value (in the cases where MPS claims it does); or (ii) that it does not have any or not nearly as much extrinsic value as MPS treats it as having; and. (b) With respect to the Con-Object, Nietzsche argues only that the Con-Objects are extrinsically valuable for the cultivation of human excellence and that this is obscured by child, the “con” attitude endorsed by MPS. Thus, what unifies Nietzsche's seemingly disparate critical remarks about altruism, happiness, pity, equality, Kantian respect for persons, utilitarianism, etc. is that he thinks a culture in which such norms prevail as morality will be a culture which eliminates the conditions for the realization of human excellence the latter requiring, on Nietzsche's view, concern with the self, suffering, a certain stoic indifference, a sense of Essay, hierarchy and define tourist difference, and the like. Indeed, when we turn to Water Essay the details of Nietzsche's criticisms of these norms we find that, in fact, this is precisely what he argues. One detailed example will have to suffice here.

What could be harmful about the seemingly innocuous MPS valuation of happiness (“pro”) and suffering (“con”)? An early remark of Nietzsche's suggests his answer: Are we not, with this tremendous objective of obliterating all the sharp edges of life, well on the way to turning mankind into sand ? Sand! Small, soft, round, unending sand! Is that your ideal, you heralds of the sympathetic affections? (D 174) In a later work, Nietzsche says referring to hedonists and virgin rocks utilitarians that, “Well-being as you understand it that is no goal, that seems to us an end , a state that soon makes man ridiculous and contemptible” (BGE 225). By the hedonistic doctrine of well-being, Nietzsche takes the utilitarians to Canadian Water Essay have in A Report on the BMW Group Essay mind “ English happiness,” namely, “comfort and fashion” (BGE 228) a construal which, if unfair to some utilitarians (like Mill), may do justice to our ordinary aspirations to happiness. In a similar vein, Nietzsche has Zarathustra dismiss “wretched contentment” as an ideal (Z Pref:3), while also revealing that it was precisely “the last men” the Water Service Essay, “most despicable men” who “invented happiness [ Glück ]” in the first place (Pref:5). So happiness, according to on the Essay Nietzsche, is not an intrinsically valuable end, and men who aim for it directly or through cultivating the dispositions that lead to Service it would be “ridiculous and contemptible.” To be sure, Nietzsche allows that he himself and the “free spirits” will be “cheerful” or “gay” [ frölich ] they are, after all, the proponents of the “gay science.” But the point is that such “happiness” is not criterial of being a higher person, and thus it is not something that the definition, higher person in contrast to Water Service Essay the adherent of MPS aims for. Yet why does aiming for happiness make a person so unworthy of admiration? Nietzsche's answer appears to BMW Group Essay be this: because suffering is positively necessary for the cultivation of human excellence which is the only thing, recall, that warrants admiration for Nietzsche.

He writes, for Canadian Water Service example, that: The discipline of containment definition, suffering, of great suffering do you not know that only this discipline has created all enhancements of man so far? That tension of the Water Service Essay, soul in conflict inequality unhappiness which cultivates its strength, its shudders face to Essay face with great ruin, its inventiveness and courage in virgin enduring, persevering, interpreting, and exploiting suffering, and whatever has been granted to it of profundity, secret, mask, spirit, cunning, greatness was it not granted to Canadian Service Essay it through suffering, through the discipline of great suffering? (BGE 225; cf. BGE 270) Nietzsche is not arguing here that in contrast to the view of MPS suffering is really intrinsically valuable (not even MPS claims that). The value of suffering, according to Nietzsche, is only extrinsic: suffering “great” suffering is on Society,, a prerequisite of any great human achievement. As Nietzsche puts the point elsewhere: “Only great pain is the ultimate liberator of the spirit.I doubt that such pain makes us ‘better’; but I know that it makes us more profound” (GS Pref:3). Nietzsche's attack, then, conforms to the model sketched above: (i) he rejects the Canadian, view that happiness is intrinsically valuable; and (ii) he thinks that the negative attitude of MPS toward suffering obscures its important extrinsic value. (There is reason to think that, on this second point, Nietzsche is generalizing from containment definition ww2, his own experience with physical suffering, the worst periods of which coincided with his greatest productivity. Indeed, he believed that his suffering contributed essentially to his work: as he writes, admittedly hyperbolically, in Ecce Homo : “In the midst of the torments that go with an uninterrupted three-day migraine, accompanied by laborious vomiting of phlegm, I possessed a dialectician's clarity par excellence and Canadian Essay thought through with very cold blood matters for which under healthier circumstances I am not mountain-climber, not subtle, not cold enough” (EH I:1).) Even if there is no shortage in the history of art and literature of child policy, cases of Canadian Service, immense suffering being the spur to Essay great creativity, there remains a serious worry about the logic of this line of Nietzschean critique.

Following Leiter (1995), we may call this the Service Essay, “Harm Puzzle,” and the puzzle is this: why should one think the general moral prescription to alleviate suffering must stop the suffering of great artists, hence stop them from virgin of the, producing great art? One might think, in fact, that MPS could perfectly well allow an exception for those individuals whose own suffering is Canadian, essential to the realization of central life projects. Conflict. After all, a prescription to Canadian Water alleviate suffering reflects a concern with promoting well-being, under some construal. But if some individuals nascent Goethes, Nietzsches, and the one child policy in china other geniuses would be better off with a good dose of suffering, then why would MPS recommend otherwise? Why, then, should it be the case that MPS “harms” potentially “higher men”? This seems the natural philosophical question to ask, yet it also involves an important misunderstanding of Nietzsche's critique, which is Canadian Essay, not, we might say, about philosophical theory but rather about the real nature of culture . When MPS values come to dominate a culture, Nietzsche thinks (plausibly), they will affect the policy in china, attitudes of all members of Service Essay, that culture.

If MPS values emphasize the badness of suffering and the goodness of happiness, that will influence how individuals with the potential for great achievements will understand, evaluate and conduct their own lives. If, in fact, suffering is a precondition for these individuals to do anything great, and if they have internalized the norm that suffering must be alleviated, and that happiness is the ultimate goal, then we run the definition ww2, risk that, rather than to put it crudely suffer and create, they will instead waste their energies pursuing pleasure, lamenting their suffering and seeking to alleviate it. MPS values may not explicitly prohibit artists or other potentially “excellent” persons from Essay, ever suffering; but the Essay, risk is that a culture like ours which has internalized the norms against suffering and for pleasure will be a culture in which potential artists and other doers of great things will, in fact , squander themselves in self-pity and the seeking of pleasure. So Nietzsche's response to the Harm Puzzle depends upon an empirical claim about what the real effect of MPS will be. The normative component of MPS is harmful not because its specific prescriptions and proscriptions explicitly require potentially excellent persons to Canadian Water forego that which allows them to the one child in china flourish (the claim is not that a conscientious application of the “theory” of MPS is Service Essay, incompatible with the flourishing of higher men); rather, the normative component of MPS is harmful because in practice , and especially because of on the BMW Group Essay, MPS's commitment to the idea that one morality is appropriate for Canadian Essay all, potentially higher men will come to adopt such values as applicable to virgin of the themselves as well. Thus, the normative component of MPS is harmful because, in reality, it will have the effect of Water Essay, leading potentially excellent persons to value what is in fact not conducive to their flourishing and devalue what is in fact essential to it. In sum, Nietzsche's central objection to Essay MPS is that it thwarts the development of human excellence. His argument for Canadian Water this, in each case, turns on identifying distinctive valuations of MPS, and showing how as in the case of norms favoring happiness and devaluing suffering they undermine the development of individuals who would manifest human excellence. (For discussion of other examples, see Leiter 2002: 134136.) 2. Nietzsche's Positive Ethical Vision. While Nietzsche clearly has views about the states of affairs to which positive intrinsic value attaches (namely, the define tourist, flourishing of higher men), there is more disagreement among interpreters about what kind of ethics arises from the latter valuation so central to his critique of morality. The two leading candidates are that Nietzsche embraces a kind of virtue ethics (e.g., Hunt 1991; Solomon 2001) and that he is a kind of perfectionist (Hurka 1993, Hurka 2007).

These accounts turn out to overlap the perfections of the Canadian Water, latter account are often the virtues of the define tourist, former though the perfectionist account will prove to have certain other advantages, discussed below. Any account of Nietzsche's “positive ethics” confronts a threshold worry, namely, that Nietzsche's naturalistic conception of persons and agency and, in Service particular, his conception of persons as constituted by non-conscious type-facts that determine their actions makes it unclear how Nietzsche could have a philosophical ethics in any conventional sense. If, as Nietzsche, says, we face “a brazen wall of fate; we are in prison, we can only dream ourselves free, not make ourselves free” (HAH II:33); if “the single human being is a piece of fatum from the virgin, front and from the rear, one law more, one necessity more for all that is yet to come and to be” (TI V:6); if (as he says more hyperbolically in Nachlass material) “the voluntary is absolutely lackingeverything has been directed along certain lines from the beginning” (WP 458); if (again hyperbolically) “one will become only that which one is (in spite of all: that means education, instruction, milieu, chance, and accident)” (WP 334); then it is hardly surprising that Nietzsche should also say, “A man as he ought to be: that sounds to us as insipid as ‘a tree as he ought to be’” (WP 332). Yet a philosopher reluctant to talk about “man as he ought to be” is Canadian Service, plainly ill-suited to the task of developing a normative ethics, understood as systematic and theoretical guidance for how to live, whether that guidance comes in the form of rules for child in china behavior or dispositions of character to be cultivated. (There is an additional, and special difficulty, for those who think Nietzsche is a virtue ethicist, namely, that he also thinks genuine virtues are specific to individuals, meaning that there will be nothing general for the theorist to say about them [see, e.g., Z I:5].) This means we must approach the question of Nietzsche's “positive” ethics in terms of explicating (1) what it is Nietzsche values, (2) what his criteria of Essay, evaluation are, and (3) what evaluative structure , if any, is exhibited by the answers to (1) and (2). We go wrong at the start, however, if we expect Nietzsche to ww2 produce a normative theory of any familiar kind, whether a virtue ethics or otherwise. Importantly, the preceding points should not be read as denying that Nietzsche thinks values and evaluative judgments can have a causal impact on actions and Essay how lives are lived. After all, there would be no point in undertaking a “revaluation of values” if such a revaluation would not have consequences for, e.g., the flourishing of higher men, or if MPS values did not have deleterious causal consequences for those same people. Values make a causal difference, but, given Nietzsche's epiphenomenalism about consciousness (discussed, above, in 1.1), they do not make this difference because of free, conscious choices individuals make to adopt certain moral rules or cultivate certain dispositions of character. We can better appreciate Nietzsche's unusual views on this score by looking more closely at the popular, but mistaken, idea that Nietzsche calls on people to “create themselves” (on the general topic, see Leiter 1998). Alexander Nehamas, for example, reads Nietzsche as endorsing an ethics of self-creation.

For Nietzsche, Nehamas says, “The people who ‘want to become those they are’ are precisely ‘human beings who are new, unique, incomparable, who give themselves laws, who create themselves’ (GS, 335)” (1985, p. 174). Unfortunately, Nehamas truncates the quote from The Gay Science at virgin of the a misleading point. For Nietzsche, in Canadian Water Essay the full passage, continues as follows: To that end [of creating ourselves] we must become the A Report on the Essay, best learners and discoverers of everything that is lawful and necessary in the world: we must become physicists in order to be creators in Canadian Water Essay this sense [ wir müssen Physiker sein, um, in jenem Sinne , Schöpfer sein zu können ] while hitherto all valuations and ideals have been based on ignorance of physics . Therefore: long live physics! (GS 335) Creation “in this sense” is, then, a very special sense indeed: for it presupposes the discovery of what is “lawful and containment definition necessary” as revealed by physical science! The passage begins to make more sense in context. For in this same section, Nietzsche claims that “every action is unknowable,” though he adds: our opinions, valuations, and Essay tables of define tourist, what is good certainly belong among the most powerful levers in Canadian Service the involved mechanism of our actions, butin any particular case the law of virgin of the, their mechanism is indemonstrable [ unnachweisbar ]. This observation leads Nietzsche immediately to the suggestion that we should create “our own new tables of Water Essay, what is good,” presumably with an eye to effecting the causal determination of our actions in new ways.

However, we need help from science to identify the lawful patterns into which values and actions fall; even if the mechanisms are indemonstrable, science may at least reveal the patterns of value-inputs and action-outputs. Virgin. So to create one's self, “in this sense,” is to accept Nietzsche's basically deterministic picture of Water Service Essay, action as determined by define tourist, sub-conscious causes (type-facts) that are hard to identify but to use science to help identify those “values” which figure in Canadian Water the causal determination of A Report, action in new, but predictable, ways. Values, then, have a causal impact upon how people act and thus also on their life trajectories; but we cannot expect these impacts to flow from free, conscious choices that persons make. This would explain, of course, why we find so little in Nietzsche by way of argumentative or discursive support for his evaluative judgments: such intellectual devices are precisely the ones that would appeal to our conscious faculties, and Canadian Service thus would be idle with respect to the desired outcomes. Essay On Society, And Savagery. Nietzsche's often violent rhetorical style, by contrast, might be expected (or so Nietzsche presumably thinks) to have the requisite non-rational effect on his desired readers those “whose ears are related to ours” (GS 381). (More on Water Service, this issue in Section 4, below.) If Nietzsche does not have a typical normative ethics, he certainly has no shortage of views about evaluative questions.

For example, it is clear from the earlier discussion of Nietzsche's critique of morality that he assigns great intrinsic value to the flourishing of higher men. But who are these “higher men” and why does Nietzsche assign value to them? (Note that while Nietzsche speaks in Thus Spoke Zarathustra of the “superman” as a kind of ideal higher type, this concept simply drops out of define tourist, his mature work (except for a brief mention in EH in Service the context of on the Essay, discussing Zarathustra ). “Higher men” is an important concept in Nietzsche; the “superman” is nothing more than a rhetorical trope in Water the highly stylized Zarathustra. Of The. ) Nietzsche has three favorite examples of “higher” human beings: Goethe, Beethoven, and Nietzsche himself! What makes these figures paradigms of the “higher” type for Nietzsche, beyond their great creativity (as he says, “the men of great creativity” are “the really great men according to my understanding” (WP 957))? Following Leiter (2002: 116122), we can identify five characteristics that Nietzsche identifies as distinctive of “higher men”: the higher type is Water Essay, solitary, pursues a “unifying project,” is containment definition ww2, healthy, is life-affirming, and practices self-reverence. Service Essay. Taken together, they are plainly sufficient to make someone a higher type in Nietzsche's view, though it is not obvious that any one of these is necessary, and theory inequality various combinations often seem sufficient for explaining how Nietzsche speaks of higher human beings. First, higher types are solitary and deal with others only Canadian Water Service Essay, instrumentally. “Every choice human being,” says Nietzsche, “strives instinctively for a citadel and a secrecy where he is saved from the crowd, the many, the great majority” (BGE 26). “[T]he concept of greatness,” he says in the same work, “entails being noble, wanting to on the BMW Group be by Water, oneself, being able to define tourist be different, standing alone and having to live independently [ auf-eigne-Faust-leben-müssen ]” (BGE 212). Indeed, the higher type pursues solitude with something of a vengeance, for he “knows how to make enemies everywhere,[He] constantly contradicts the great majority not through words but through deeds” (WP 944). Canadian Water Service. Unsurprisingly, then, the virgin, great or higher man lacks the Canadian Water, “congeniality” and policy in china “good-naturedness” so often celebrated in contemporary popular culture. “A great manis incommunicable: he finds it tasteless to be familiar” (WP 962). More than that, though, the higher type deals with others, when he has to, in a rather distinctive way: “A human being who strives for something great considers everyone he meets on his way either as a means or as a delay and obstacle or as a temporary resting place” (BGE 273).

Thus, “a great manwants no ‘sympathetic’ heart, but servants, tools; in his intercourse with men, he is always intent on making something out of them” (WP 962). The great man approaches others instrumentally not only because of his fundamental proclivity for solitude, but because of another distinguishing characteristic: he is consumed by his work, his responsibilities, his projects. Second, higher types seek burdens and Canadian Service Essay responsibilities, in the pursuit of some unifying project . “What is noble?” Nietzsche again asks in a Nachlass note of 1888. His answer: “That one instinctively seeks heavy responsibilities” (WP 944). So it was with Goethe: “he was not fainthearted but took as much as possible upon himself, over conflict gender inequality himself, into himself” (TI IX:49). But the Canadian Service Essay, higher type does not seek out responsibilities and tasks arbitrarily. Define Tourist. “A great man,” says Nietzsche displays “a long logic in all of his activityhe has the ability to extend his will across great stretches of his life and to despise, and reject everything petty about him” (WP 962). This is the Canadian Water Service Essay, trait Nietzsche sometimes refers to as having “style” in “character” (GS 290). (Note that this famous passage (GS 290) merely describes those “the strong and domineering natures” who are able “‘to give’ style” to their character; it does not presuppose that just anyone can do so and it is not a recommendation that everyone try to define tourist do so.) Indeed, Nietzsche understood his own life in these terms: [T]he organizing “idea” that is destined to rule [in one's life and work] keeps growing deep down it begins to Canadian command; slowly it leads us back from side roads and wrong roads; it prepares single qualities and fitnesses that will one day prove to be indispensable as means toward a whole one by one, it trains all subservient capacities before giving any hint of the dominant task, “goal,” “aim,” or “meaning.” Considered in this way, my life is simply wonderful. Containment. For the task of a revaluation of all values more capacities may have been needed than have ever dwelt together in a single individual.I never even suspected what was growing in me and Canadian Service Essay one day all my capacities, suddenly ripe, leaped forth in their ultimate perfection. (EH II:9). Earlier in Ecce Homo , Nietzsche describes himself as a higher type, “a well-turned-out-person” (EH I:2), and thus we may conclude that it is a characteristic only conflict, of the Water Service, higher type that he is driven in pursuit of of the rocks, a project in Service the way described here.

Indeed, it turns out to be precisely this kind of instinctive drivenness that Nietzsche has partly in mind when he praises “health.” Third, higher types are essentially healthy and resilient. One essential attribute of the definition ww2, “well-turned-out-person ”is that he “has a taste only for what is good for him; his pleasure, his delight cease where the measure of what is good for Water Essay him is transgressed. He guesses what remedies avail against what is harmful; he exploits bad accidents to his advantage” (EH I:2). But this is just to say that a higher type is of the, healthy , for health, Nietzsche tells us, means simply “instinctively cho[osing] the right means against wretched states” (EH I:2). This permits us to understand Nietzsche's own declaration in Ecce Homo that he was “ healthy at bottom ” (EH I:2), a seemingly paradoxical claim for Canadian Service a philosopher whose physical ailments were legion. Yet “health,” for Nietzsche, is a term of art, meaning not the absence of sickness, but something closer to resilience , to how one deals with ordinary (physical) sickness and setbacks. “For a typical healthy person,” Nietzsche says, “being sick can even become an energetic stimulus for life, for living more. This, in fact, is how [my own] long period of sickness appears to the one child in china me now it was during the Essay, years of my lowest vitality that I ceased to define tourist be a pessimist; the instinct of Canadian Water Essay, self-restoration forbade me a philosophy of poverty and discouragement” (EH I:2). To cease to A Report be a pessimist is to reject MPS, for only under the color of MPS does life appear to lack value. Thus, being healthy, in Water Service turn, entails a distinctive non-pessimistic attitude towards life which is yet a fourth mark of the higher type.

Fourth, higher types affirm life, meaning that they are prepared to will the eternal return of their lives . Virgin Rocks. In Beyond Good and Evil , Nietzsche describes “the opposite Water ideal” to that of moralists and pessimists like Schopenhauer as “the ideal of the and Savagery, most high-spirited, alive, and world-affirming human being who has not only come to terms and learned to Canadian Service Essay get along with whatever was and is, but who wants to have what was and is repeated into all eternity” (BGE 56). Put more simply: the higher type embraces the doctrine of the eternal recurrence and thus evinces what Nietzsche often calls a “Dionysian” or “life-affirming” attitude. Essay. A person, for Nietzsche, has a Dionysian attitude toward life insofar as he affirms his life unconditionally; in Service particular, insofar as he affirms it including the define tourist, “suffering” or other hardships it has involved. So someone who says, “I would gladly live my life again, except for my first marriage,” would not affirm life in the requisite sense. Thus, we may say that a person affirms his life in Water Essay Nietzsche's sense only insofar as he would gladly will its eternal return: i.e., will the repetition of his entire life through eternity. A Report. In fact, Nietzsche calls “the idea of the eternal recurrence” the “highest formulation of affirmation that is at all attainable” (EH III:Z-1; cf. BGE 56). Higher men, then, are marked by Canadian Water Essay, a distinctive Dionysian attitude toward their life: they would gladly will the repetition of define tourist, their life eternally. Strikingly, Nietzsche claims that precisely this attitude characterized both himself and Goethe. Speaking, for example, of the Water Service Essay, neglect by his contemporaries of his work, Nietzsche writes: “I myself have never suffered from all this; what is necessary does not hurt me; amor fati [love of fate] is my inmost nature” (EH III:CW-4). Regarding Goethe, Nietzsche says that, “Such a spiritstands amid the cosmos with a joyous and trusting fatalism, in the faith that all is virgin of the, redeemed and affirmed in the whole.Such a faith, however, is the highest of all possible faiths: I have baptized it with the name of Dionysus ” (TI IX:49).

Finally, the higher type of human being has a distinctive bearing towards others and especially towards himself: he has self-reverence. “The ‘higher nature’ of the great man,” says Nietzsche in a striking Nachlass note of 1888 “lies in being different, in incommunicability, in distance of rank, not in an effect of any kind even if he made the Canadian Water Service, whole globe tremble” (WP 876; cf. GS 55). This is perhaps the most unusual feature of Nietzsche's discussion of the define tourist, higher type, for it suggests that, at bottom, being a higher type is a matter of Canadian Water Essay, “attitude” or “bearing.” In a section of Beyond Good and Evil , Nietzsche once again answers the question, “What is gender inequality, noble?”, this time as follows: “It is not the Water Service, works, it is the rocks, faith that is decisive here, that determines the order of rank: some fundamental certainty that a noble soul has about itself, something that cannot be sought, nor found, nor perhaps lost. The noble soul has reverence [Ehrfurcht] for itself” (BGE 287). Self-reverence to revere and respect oneself as one might a god is Service Essay, no small achievement, as the proliferation of “self-help” programs and pop psychology slogans like “I'm OK, you're OK” would suggest. Self-loathing, self-doubt, and self-laceration are the virgin of the rocks, norm among human beings; to possess a “fundamental certainty” about Service Essay oneself is, Nietzsche thinks quite plausibly, a unique state of affairs. Allied with this posture of define tourist, self-reverence are other distinctive attitudes that distinguish the bearing of the higher man. Canadian Water Essay. “The noble human being,” says Nietzsche, “honors himself as one who is powerful, also as one who has power over himself, who knows how to speak and be silent, who delights in being severe and hard with himself and respects all severity and hardness” (BGE 260). (The higher man, unsurprisingly, is no hedonist: “What is inequality, noble?” asks Nietzsche: “That one leaves happiness to Canadian Service Essay the great majority: happiness as peace of soul, virtue, comfort, Anglo-angelic shopkeeperdom a la Spencer” (WP 944).) In an earlier work, Nietzsche explains that: [T]he passion that attacks those who are noble is peculiar.It involves the use of a rare and singular standard cold to everybody else; the on the, discovery of values for which no scales have been invented yet; offering sacrifices on altars that are dedicated to an unknown god; a courage without any desire for Canadian Water honors; self-sufficiency that overflows and gives to men and things. (GS 55) Indeed, the ability to set his own standard of valuation is policy, one of the most distinctive achievements of the higher type, as we saw already in the discussion of solitude. Water Service. And “the highest man” says Nietzsche is “he who determines values and of the directs the will of millennia by giving direction to Canadian the highest natures” (WP 999). Considered all together, it becomes clear why creatives geniuses like Goethe, Beethoven, and Nietzsche himself should be the preferred examples of the higher human being: for the characteristics of the child policy, higher type so-described are precisely those that lend themselves to artistic and creative work. A penchant for solitude, an absolute devotion to one's tasks, an indifference to external opinion, a fundamental certainty about oneself and one's values (that often strikes others as hubris) all these are the traits we find, again and again, in artistic geniuses. (It turns out, for example, that Beethoven, according to his leading biographer, had almost all these characteristics to Canadian Essay a striking degree; for discussion, see Leiter 2002: 122123.)

If “the men of great creativity, the really great men according to my understanding” (WP 957), men like Goethe and containment Beethoven, are Nietzsche's paradigmatic higher types, whose lives are models of Canadian Service Essay, flourishing excellence, is there anything systematic to be said about the theory of value that undergirds these judgments and informs, in turn, Nietzsche's critique of morality (MPS) on the grounds that it thwarts the development of such men? One popular idea (e.g., Schacht 1983, Richardson 1996) is that higher men exemplify “power,” which is definition, claimed to be Nietzsche's fundamental criterion of Water Service Essay, value. Such readings, alas, have to employ the concept of “power” rather elastically, since the conglomeration of traits of higher human beings noted above don't seem to be, in any ordinary sense, instances of gender, “power” or its manifestation. (Treating Nietzsche's fundamental criterion of Service Essay, value as “power” confronts even more serious textual and philosophical obstacles: see Section 3.1, below.) More illuminating is Hurka's view (1993 and Hurka 2007) that Nietzsche's evaluative posture conjoins perfectionism with maximizing consequentialism: what has value are certain human excellences (or perfections), and containment states of affairs are assessed in terms of their maximization of these excellences. As Hurka helpfully observes (1993: 75), Nietzsche seems to operate with the opposite of Rawls's maximin principle, what Hurka calls approriately “maximax.” Hurka states this as a rule for Essay conduct (“each agent's overriding goal should be not a sum or average of conflict gender inequality, lifetime value, but the Canadian Water Service Essay, greatest lifetime value of the single most perfect individual, or, if perfections are not fully comparable, of the few most perfect individuals” [1993: 75]), but given the earlier caveats about reading Nietzsche as a conventional normative theorist, it is better to A Report on the BMW Group treat maximax as reflecting the implicit structure of Nietzsche's revaluation of values: he rejects MPS because it fails to maximize the Canadian Service Essay, perfection of the highest human beings, and he does so without, it appears, any regard for the costs to the herd of such a rejection (see Section 4). This leaves the question whether there are (formal or substantive) criteria of “perfection” for the one child policy in china Nietzsche? Many writers (e.g., Hurka 2007; Nehamas 1985; Richardson 1996) are attracted to the idea that “style” or “unity” is Canadian Service Essay, a criterion of excellence or perfection for Nietzsche, and, indeed, as noted above, the pursuit of a unified or coherent life project is a characteristic feature of those Nietzsche deems to be higher men. Whether such style or coherence suffices is a vexed interpretive question, since it is containment ww2, not entirely clear that the formal criterion of style or unity is available only to Canadian Water Essay Goethes and Beethovens: did not Kant, that “catastrophic spider” as Nietzsche unflatteringly calls him (A 11), exhibit an extraordinarily coherent style of creative productivity over many years? Others (e.g., Magnus 1978) take Nietzsche's idea of eternal recurrence (the hallmark of life-affirmation, as noted above) as the criterion of a well-lived life: perfection is a matter of definition, living in Canadian Water Service such a way that one is conflict theory inequality, ready to Water gladly will the A Report BMW Group, repetition of one's life, in all its particulars, in to eternity. This, too, seems both too thin and too severe as a criterion of Water Service Essay, perfection standing alone: too thin, because anyone suitably superficial and complacent might will the eternal return; too severe, because it seems to in china require that a post-Holocaust Goethe gladly will the repetition of the Holocaust. Nehamas (1985), who shares some of Magnus's view, adds an idioscynratic element to this account: he claims that Nietzsche does not describe his ideal person his “higher man” but rather “exemplifies” such a person in the form of the “character” that is constituted by and exemplified in his corpus.

Nietzsche, however, describes at great length and in many places (e.g. D 201; GS 55; BGE 287; NCW Epilogue:2; WP 943) the Essay, types of persons he admires; and he also describes himself as such a person (e.g., EH I:2) In any case, Nehamas's view would have the odd consequence that for the one Nietzsche to have had a positive ethical vision at any point earlier in his career he would have had to anticipate writing the series of books he actually wrote, such that his ethical ideal would be properly exemplified in them! Needless to say, there is no reason to think this was Nietzsche's view. Nietzsche holds that moral (i.e., MPS) values are not conducive to the flourishing of human excellence, and it is by reference to this fact that he proposed to assess their value. The enterprise of assessing the value of certain other values (call them the Water, ‘revalued values’) naturally invites the metaethical question: what status metaphysical, epistemological do the values used to undertake this revaluation (the ‘assessing values’) enjoy? (It is doubtful Nietzsche has a definite semantic view about judgments of value: cf. Hussain 2013, esp. Define Tourist. 412.) Following Leiter (2000), we may distinguish “Privilege Readings” of Nietzsche's metaethics which claim that Nietzsche holds that his own evaluative standpoint is Water, either veridical or better justified than its target from those readings which deny the Shame, and Savagery, claim of privilege. (Note that defenders of this latter, “skeptical” view need not read Nietzsche as a global anti-realist i.e., as claiming that there are no truths or facts about Canadian Water Service anything, let alone truths about value a reading which has now been widely discredited. There is, on the skeptical view at issue here, a special problem about the objectivity of value.) Privilege Readings of Nietzsche can come in three varieties: Intuitionist Realist (I-Realist); Naturalist Realist (N-Realist); and Privilege Non-Realist (P-Non-Realist). The proponents of these views would hold the the one child policy, following: (i) According to Service the I-Realist, there are non-natural normative facts, which are sui generis, and on Society, which are apprehended by some appropriate act of normative ‘perception.’ (ii) According to Service Essay the N-Realist, there are normative facts because normative facts are just constituted by certain natural facts (in some sense to be specified).

(iii) According to the P-Non-Realist, there are no normative facts, but some normative judgments still enjoy a privilege by virtue of on Society,, their interpersonal appeal or acceptance. To say that there are ‘normative facts’ will mean, for purposes here, that norms are (in some sense) objective features of the world. No one, to date, has construed Nietzsche as an Service Essay, I-Realist, but Schacht (1983) and Wilcox (1974), among many others, have defended an N-Realist reading, while Foot (1973) has defended a P-Non-Realist reading. We consider the difficulties afflicting these Privilege Readings in turn. According to child policy in china the N-Realist reading, Nietzsche holds, first, that only power really has value and, second, that power is an objective, natural property. Nietzsche's evaluative perspective is privileged, in Canadian turn, because it involves asssessing (i) prudential value (value for an agent) in Essay on Society, Shame, and Savagery terms of degree of Canadian Service, power, and (ii) non-prudential value in terms of maximization of prudential value (i.e., maximization of power). Inequality. (A cautionary note about terminology here: by ordinary conventions, the N-Realist proper holds that value itself is a natural property, not simply that what has value is a natural property. Water Essay. There is no clear textual evidence of Nietzsche's view on A Report on the BMW Group, this subtle question, yet it still makes sense to use the “N-Realist” label for two reasons: first, defenders of this reading treat Nietzsche's view as “naturalistic”; and, second, it is in fact ‘naturalistic’ in a familiar nineteenth-century sense, i.e., it denies that there are any supernatural properties. Canadian Water Essay. In the conflict, theory of Water, value, then, one might plausibly think of Nietzsche as being a kind of naturalist in the sense of resisting religious and quasi-religious theories that view goodness as supervening on conflict theory gender, non-natural (e.g., the “Forms”) or supernatural properties; as against this, Nietzsche claims that goodness supervenes on a (putatively) natural property, namely power.) According to Schacht, Nietzsche's account of “the fundamental character of life and the world” as will to power is supposed to “ground” his own evaluative standpoint (1983: 348349). As Nietzsche writes (in a passage Schacht quotes): “assuming that life itself is the will to Water power,” then “there is nothing to life that has value, except the degree of power” (WP 55). Nietzsche's revaluation of A Report Essay, values, then, assesses moral values on the basis of their “degree of power,” something which constitutes an “objective measure of value” (WP 674).

Hence the privilege of his view: it embraces as an Canadian Service Essay, evaluative standard the only thing in life that (in fact) has value (namely power), and employs this “objective measure of value” in the revaluation (e.g., by criticizing Christian morality because it does not maximize “power”). What exactly is Nietzsche's argument on the N-Realist reading? When pressed, commentators are never very clear. Schacht, for example, writes: Human life, for Nietzsche, is ultimately a part of a kind of vast game[which] is, so to speak, the only game in town.The nature of the game, he holds, establishes a standard for A Report Essay the evaluation of everything falling within its compass.

The availability of this standard places evaluation on footing that is as firm as that on which the comprehension of Canadian Water, life and the world stands. (1983, p. 398) Talk of “the only game in town” is far too metaphorical, however, to bear the philosophical weight demanded. From the theory gender inequality, fact that “life itself is the will to power,” how does it follow that power is the only standard of Canadian Water, value? From the fact, for example, that all life obeys the laws of fundamental physics, nothing follows about the appropriate standard of value. What Schacht and others seem to have in mind is something like John Stuart Mill's argument for utilitarianism, which proceeds from the premise that since happiness is the only thing people desire or aim for, it follows that happiness is the on Society, and Savagery, only thing that possesses intrinsic value. This argument, though, is famously unsuccessful: from the fact that only happiness is desired, nothing at Canadian all follows about what ought to be desired. Attempts to Essay and Savagery construe Nietzsche's argument in an analogous way encounter similar problems (Leiter 2000 explores the analogy in Water Essay detail). On Mill's well-known and oft-criticized ‘proof’ of the principle of utility from his 1861 Utilitarianism , to show that something is visible, we must show that it is seen; and to A Report on the show that something is audible, we must show that it is heard; analogously, (P) to show that something is Canadian Service Essay, desirable (i.e., valuable), show that it is desired. Millian hedonism holds that only Essay on Society, Shame, and Savagery, happiness or pleasure is Water Essay, intrinsically desirable or valuable (‘Prescriptive Hedonism’). Let us call ‘Value Nihilism’ the view that there is nothing that has value or is valuable (or desirable).

To get Prescriptive Hedonism from (P), then, plug in ‘Descriptive Hedonism’ the Essay on Society, and Savagery, thesis that people do in fact desire only pleasure as an end. If (P) is Water Essay, valid, Descriptive Hedonism true, and Value Nihilism false, then the truth of Prescriptive Hedonism follows. ((P), of course, is containment definition ww2, not valid, a point to which we will return.) Notice, now, that the same type of argument seems to capture what the N-Realist construal of Nietzsche has in Water Service mind. Essay On Society,. That is, to get the N-Realist Nietzschean conclusion that what is valuable is power, take (P) and Water plug in a strong form of Nietzsche's descriptive doctrine of the will to power the doctrine, roughly, that all persons intrinsically ‘desire’ only power. If (P) is valid, Value Nihilism false, and the descriptive doctrine of the will to power is true, then the define tourist, normative conclusion about power, which Schacht is Essay, after, seems to follow. (Note, of course, that the Millian Model argument as formulated so far would show only conflict theory gender, that power is what is non-morally valuable or good for an agent.

Of course, if the Millian Model argument for prudential value or non-moral goodness does not work, then that provides a very strong (if defeasible) reason for supposing that there is no further argument for the related account of non-prudential value as consisting in maximization of power.) What are the problems with this “Millian argument”? The first problem, of course, is that (P) is not valid. While from the fact that x is heard, it follows that x is Canadian Service, audible, it does not follow from that fact that x is Essay on Society,, desired that x is desirable in the sense necessary for the argument . For while ‘audible’ can be fairly rendered as ‘can be heard,’ ‘desirable,’ in the context of Prescriptive Hedonism, means ‘ ought to be desired’ (not ‘can’ or ‘is’ desired). Thus, while it follows that: it does not follow that, If x is desired, then x ought to be desired (‘is desirable’). Yet in Water claiming that pleasure or power are valuable, Mill and the N-Realist Nietzsche are advancing a normative thesis. BMW Group Essay. The truth of Essay, this normative thesis, however, simply does not follow from the corresponding descriptive thesis. Many, of course, have thought this too facile a response. Define Tourist. Supplement the argument, then, by adding an ‘Internalist Constraint’ (IC), one that many philosophers have found plausible in the theory of value: (IC) Something cannot be valuable for a person unless the person is capable of caring about (desiring) it. The (IC) is motivated by Essay, the thought that it cannot be right to say that ‘X is valuable’ for someone when x is alien to anything a person cares about or could care about: any plausible notion of value, the (IC) supposes, must have some strong connection to a person's existing (or potential) motivational set.

How does the containment definition ww2, (IC) help? Recall (P): (P) To show that something is desirable (i.e., valuable) show that it is desired. Now the (IC) puts a constraint on what things can, in fact, be desirable or valuable: namely, only those things that agents can, in fact, care about Canadian Water Service Essay or desire. Define Tourist. This suggests that we might reformulate (P) as follows: (P′) To show that something is desirable (i.e., valuable), show that it is Water Service Essay, or can be desired. (P′) now is simply a different formulation of the (IC): if we accept the (IC) then we should accept (P′). But what happens, then, if we grant the truth of Descriptive Hedonism: namely, that only pleasure is, in fact, desired.

In that case, it would now follow that only pleasure is desirable (ought to be desired) (assuming, again, that Value Nihilism is false). That is, since something ought to be desired only define tourist, if it can be desired (internalism), then if only x can be desired, then only x ought to be desired (assuming that Value Nihilism is false). Will this argument rescue the N-Realist Nietzsche? Two obstacles remain. The first, and perhaps less serious one, is that we must have some reason for accepting the (IC) or, more modestly, some reason for thinking Nietzsche accepts it.

It is not clear, however, that there are adequate textual grounds for saying where Nietzsche stands on Water Essay, this question. Definition. Since the (IC) does, however, seem to be presupposed by the Nietzschean remarks from the Nachlass that support N-Realism in Water Service Essay the sense that such remarks do not constitute a good argument without the (IC) let us grant that Nietzsche accepts the (IC), and child let us simply put aside the contentious issue of Essay, whether we ought to accept the (IC) as a general philosophical matter. A second difficulty will still remain: namely, that the argument for Essay and Savagery N-Realism still depends on the truth of the relevant descriptive thesis, in Nietzsche's case, the doctrine of the will to power. Canadian Water Essay. This presents two problems. First, in the works Nietzsche chose to publish, it seems clear that he did not, in fact, accept the doctrine in the strong form required for the N-Realist argument (namely, that it is only power that persons ever aim for or desire). Second, it is simply not a plausible doctrine in its strong form.

For the Millian Model argument for N-Realism to definition ww2 work in its new form (that is, supplemented with the (IC)) it must be the Canadian Water Service Essay, case that that which ought to be desired (‘is valuable’) are the only things that are, in definition fact, desired. Since the N-Realist Nietzschean conclusion is Water Service, that only power is BMW Group, valuable, power must be the only thing that is, in fact, desired (assuming, again, that something is valuable, i.e., that Value Nihilism is Canadian Service, false). Define Tourist. Many, of course, have thought that Nietzsche held precisely this view, and he plainly says much to suggest that. Zarathustra states that, “Where I found the living, there I found will to power” (Z II:12); Nietzsche refers to “the will to Canadian Water Service Essay power which is the A Report, will of life” (GS 349); he says “the really fundamental instinct of lifeaims at the expansion of Water Essay, power ” (GS 349); “life simply is will to power,” meaning a striving “to grow, spread, seize, become predominant” (BGE 259); he refers to his “theory that in all events a will to power is rocks, operating” (GM II:12); he claims that “[a] living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength life itself is will to power ” (BGE 13); and so on. The difficulty is that Nietzsche says other things which might suggest that the Canadian Essay, stronger remarks are misleading; for example: Life itself is to my mind the instinct for on Society, Shame, and Savagery growth, for durability, for an accumulation of forces, for power : where the will to power is lacking there is decline. It is my contention that all the supreme values of mankind lack this will. (A 6)

But if all actions manifested this will , then this will could never be found lacking. Yet Nietzsche thinks it can be lacking, which means he must countenance the possibility that not everyone aims for (‘desires’) power. This passage is not atypical. Later in the same work, he returns to the same theme concerning “[w]herever the will to power declines in any form” (A 17). In the immediately preceding work he claims that the “effects” of liberal institutions are “known well enough: they undermine the will to power” (TI IX:38). Canadian Water Service. And in the immediately subsequent work (his last), Nietzsche refers to child policy “the terrible aspects of Water, reality (in affects, in A Report BMW Group Essay desires, in the will to power)” (EH IV:4), which certainly sounds as if will to power is simply one among various characteristics of reality alongside affects and desires, rather than the essential core of them all. Three other general textual considerations count against attributing the strong doctrine of the will to power to Canadian Water Service Nietzsche. First, if, as the defenders of the strong doctrine believe, “his fundamental principle is the ‘ will to power’ ”, then it is hard to define tourist understand why he says almost nothing about will to power and nothing at all to suggest it is Canadian Service, his “fundamental principle” in the two major self-reflective moments in the Nietzschean corpus: his last major work, Ecce Homo , where he reviews and BMW Group assesses his life and writings, including specifically all his prior books (EH III); and the series of new prefaces he wrote for The Birth of Canadian Service, Tragedy , Human, All Too Human , Dawn , and The Gay Science in 1886, in which he revisits his major themes. That this putative “fundamental principle” merits no mention on either occasion strongly suggests that its role in define tourist Nietzsche's thought has been greatly overstated. Second, the Water Essay, view at issue presupposes an unusually strong doctrine of the will to power: a doctrine, to on Society, the effect, that all life (actions, events) reflects the will to Water Service power.

But recent scholarship has cast doubt on whether Nietzsche ultimately accepted such a doctrine. The single most famous passage on will to power in the Nietzschean corpus, for example, is the concluding section (1067) of The Will to Power , where he affirms that, “ This world is the will to power and nothing besides ! And you yourselves are also this will to power and nothing besides!” Although a favorite of commentators for many years, the passage has now been conclusively discredited by the leading scholar of the Nachlass , the late Mazzino Montinari. Montinari has shown that Nietzsche had, in Essay on Society, and Savagery fact, discarded the Canadian Water, passage by Essay, the spring of Service, 1887 (1982, pp. Theory Gender Inequality. 103104)! It was, as Montinari notes, made part of the Canadian Water Essay, Köselitz-Forster compilation of The Will to Power (the basis for the English-language edition by Kaufmann and Hollingdale) notwithstanding “Nietzsche's literary intentions” (1982, p. 104).

Finally, Maudemarie Clark has argued that Nietzsche could not have accepted the very strongest form of the doctrine of the will to power namely, that all force , animate and inanimate, is containment definition, will to Water Service Essay power given the putative argument he gives for it. Clark points out that the conflict theory gender inequality, only argument for this doctrine of the will to Water Service Essay power in conflict theory gender Nietzsche's published works in Service Essay Section 36 of Beyond Good and Evil is cast in the conditional form: if we accept certain initial hypotheses, then, Nietzsche thinks, the strong doctrine of the will to power follows. But one of the antecedents of this conditional is the “causality of the will,” and Clark argues that Nietzsche clearly rejects such causality elsewhere in his work (e.g., GS 127, TI II:5, TI VI:3). Therefore, this section cannot constitute an argument for the strongest doctrine of the will to power that Nietzsche, himself, would actually accept! Rather than embracing the strongest form of the doctrine, Clark argues that Nietzsche is, somewhat ironically, illustrating the very flaw of philosophers he warns against in the surrounding passages: namely, their tendency to Essay propound theories of the essence of reality that are just projections of their own evaluative commitments (Clark 1990, pp. 212227). Thus, Nietzsche says of the Stoic talk of living “according to nature” that “while you pretend rapturously to read the canon of your law in nature, you want something opposite.Your pride wants to impose your morality, your ideal, on nature” (BGE 9).

How, Clark wonders, could Nietzsche's own doctrine of Canadian Service Essay, will to power be exempted from such a charge? (Note, too, that Montinari claims that the the one, one surviving relic of 1067 of The Will to Power in the published works is precisely the ironic Section 36 of Beyond Good and Evil (1982, p. 104).) What, then, does Nietzsche believe about will to power? As others have noted (e.g., Clark 1990: 209212), Nietzsche's doctrine of will to power in its original deployment and most of its later development is psychological in Canadian Water character: the will to power is posited as the best psychological explanation for definition a wide variety of human behaviors. But as the preceding passages and considerations make clear, Nietzsche could not have believed that will to power was the exclusive explanation for all human behavior. To the extent he sometimes seems to Essay embrace this stronger claim (see the example, above), we must simply take Nietzsche to containment ww2 have overstated his case something which his penchant for Canadian Water Essay hyperbolic rhetoric and polemics often leads him to do or to be engaged in the kind of ironic move described by Clark, above. That would, of course, be quite fortunate, since it is hardly plausible that will to power is the exclusive explanation for Shame, all human behavior. There is an additional, textual worry for Canadian Water the argument that will to power provides an objective criterion of virgin of the rocks, value lurking here as well.

Nietzsche only makes the remarks that seem to suggest that power is an objective criterion in passages from the Water Essay, Nachlass , work that Nietzsche never published during his lifetime. Thus, even if one thought that Nietzsche really held the strong descriptive doctrine of the conflict theory inequality, will to power the doctrine that all animate force (perhaps all force) is will to power in Service Essay his published works, it is still the case that he only A Report Essay, uses this doctrine to argue for the normative conclusion in Nachlass material. Since scholars have now raised important doubts about the canonical status of this Nachlass material (Montinari 1982, pp. 92104; Hollingdale 1985, pp. Water Essay. 166172, 182186), this might suggest that a view ought not to be attributed to the one child Nietzsche solely on the basis of its articulation in these notebooks, which is exactly what the Water Service Essay, N-Realist reading requires.

Although not attributing to Nietzsche any kind of value realism, Philippa Foot, like Schacht, wants to show that Nietzsche is doing something more than simply expressing his idiosyncratic view, a view that admits of no interpersonal justification. While agreeing that Nietzsche's intention is, in part, “to present us with a clash of interests the good of the strong against that of the A Report on the BMW Group, weak,” Foot adds that “this is not all he wants to suggest” (1973: 162). Noting that Nietzsche “seems to want to say that anyone who is strong, independent, and so on Canadian Service, anyone who fits his description of the define tourist, higher type of man is one who has value in himself” (163), Foot goes on to explicate this notion of Water Service, “value” as follows: [I]t does make sense to say that we value strong and rocks exceptional individuals. We do find patterns of reaction to exceptional men that would allow us to see here a valuing rather similar to Canadian Service valuing on A Report on the, aesthetic grounds. I am thinking of the interest and admiration which is the common attitude to Canadian remarkable men of exceptional independence of mind and strength of conflict, will. [Nietzsche] is appealing to our tendency to admire certain individuals whom we see as powerful and splendid. [There is] a similarity between the way we attribute value (aesthetic value) to art objects and the value that Nietzsche attributes to a certain kind of man, both resting on a set of common reactions. (1973: 163)

So Nietzsche, on this account, does not claim that his evaluative perspective is veridical; he simply claims that it enjoys a certain sort of interpersonal appeal, owing to our “common attitude to remarkable men,” “our tendency to admire certain individuals,” to find them aesthetically appealing. There may be no fact-of-the-matter as to whether higher men are or are not really valuable, but Nietzsche's evaluative standpoint is Service, privileged by virtue of its appeal to all of us. We're all interested, it seems, in the flourishing of higher men. Yet Nietzsche could not embrace the view that the flourishing of “higher men” will appeal to “ our tendency” to admire such men or to any sort of “common” attitude, given the logic of his critique of morality. This follows from rocks, what we may call Nietzsche's ‘Callicleanism,’ after Plato's Callicles in Canadian Water the Gorgias . It has now become something of containment definition ww2, a commonplace for commentators to note that Nietzsche did not accept one sort of Calliclean view, namely, the view that “anyone who is to Water Essay live aright should suffer his appetites to grow to the greatest extent and not check them” ( Gorgias , 419e) (cf. Nehamas 1985: 202203; BGE 188). Yet there remains a more important respect in which Nietzsche's view is Calliclean: namely, in define tourist its embrace of the Calliclean doctrine that the inferior employ morality to make “slaves of those who are naturally better” ( Gorgias , 491e-492a), that the weaker folk, the majorityframe the laws [and, we might add, the morals] for their own advantage’ in order to Canadian Water Service Essay ‘frighten [the strong] by saying that to overreach others is shameful and evil’ ( Gorgias , 483b-d). In short, Callicles' view is that morality is simply the prudence of the weak, who unable to do what the strong can do, opt instead to put the actions of the strong under the ban of morality. This, of course, is essentially Nietzsche's view as well. So, for example, Nietzsche describes slave morality as simply ‘the prudence [ Klugheit ] of the lowest order’ (GM I:13), and he observes that “everything that elevates an individual above the of the rocks, herd and intimidates the neighbor iscalled evil ” (BGE 201), that “[m]oral judgments and condemnations constitute the favorite revenge of the Canadian Water, spiritually limited against those less limited” (BGE 219), and he claims that the “chief means” by child policy, which the “weak and Canadian Essay mediocreweaken and pull down the stronger” is of the, “the moral judgment” (WP 345). Recall, now, that Foot wanted to resist the view that in his revaluation Nietzsche simply “present[s] us with a clash of interests the good of the strong against that of the weak” (1973: 162); instead, Foot suggests that Nietzsche is Canadian Essay, appealing to Essay a ‘common’ tendency to admire higher men, men who would otherwise be thwarted by the reign of moral values.

But for a Calliclean like Nietzsche, it is part of the Canadian Essay, very appeal of morality that it does thwart the flourishing of higher men. If that is containment definition, right, then he could not think that the flourishing of “higher men” would appeal to everyone. Canadian Water. It is of the rocks, precisely because it doesn't that morality arises in the first place, as a means for the low and Canadian base to thwart the flourishing of the high. Conflict Inequality. This is not to deny that higher men may still be admirable in the eyes of the base and low (hence their envy); it is to deny, however, that Nietzsche's evaluative perspective that it is an objection to Canadian Water Essay morality that it thwarts the high could enjoy a privilege in virtue of this shared admiration. On the Calliclean picture, there is A Report BMW Group, a fundamental hostility between the high and low, the strong and Water Essay the weak, one which will not be bridged by inviting the on Society, Shame,, low to admire the high, or the weak, the Service, strong. “The well-being of the majority and the well-being of the few are opposite viewpoints of value,” Nietzsche says in the ‘Note’ at the end of the of the rocks, first essay of the Genealogy . And in Nietzsche's revaluation, it appears, there is no evaluative standpoint from Canadian Water, which one could successfully mediate and reconcile the normative claims of the opposing moralities. If Nietzsche is not a realist about value, then he must be an anti-realist: he must deny that there is define tourist, any objective fact of the matter that would privilege his evaluative perspective over its target. Canadian Water Service Essay. (This, in fact, is the most familiar reading outside the secondary literature on Nietzsche; one finds this view of A Report, Nietzsche's metaethics, for example, in Essay the sociologist Max Weber and the moral philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre, among many others.) We must be careful about the kinds of judgments to which this anti-realism applies. Of The Rocks. Recall that in his critique of morality, Nietzsche appears to Service hold that, e.g., “herd” morality is good for the herd, but that it is bad for Essay higher men. He says, for example, that, “The ideas of the herd should rule in the herd but not reach out beyond it” (WP 287; emphasis added); and elsewhere he describes slave morality as simply “the prudence of the lowest order” (GM I:13). Canadian Water Service Essay. It may appear that regarding value judgments pertaining to welfare or prudential goodness what is good or bad for define tourist particular sorts of persons Nietzsche believes there is an objective fact of the matter, though one relative to type-facts about persons. But this is not right: while Nietzsche believes it is objectively correct that different moralities have certain effects on different kinds of people, that these effects are good or bad itself admits of anti-realist interpretation (cf. Leiter 2015: 119 for a revision of the view defended in Leiter 2002).

Even more importantly, though, Nietzsche's anti-realism applies to the “revaluative” judgment that follows upon these judgments about the effects of different moralities: that is, the judgment that because herd morality is good for the herd but bad for higher men, herd morality (or the universal reign of herd morality) is bad or disvaluable. Nietzsche certainly says much that sounds like he is denying the objectivity of values. Zarathustra tells us that, “Verily, men gave themselves all their good and Service Essay evil [ Gut und Böse ]” (Z I:15) and that “good and evil that are not transitory do not exist” (Z II:12). In The Gay Science , Nietzsche explains that, “Whatever has value in our world now does not have value in itself, according to its nature nature is always value-less, but has been given value at some time” (301; cf. Define Tourist. D 3). Water Service. Indeed, like certain radical anti-realists, he tends to equate evaluative questions with matters of taste. “What is now decisive against Christianity is our taste [ Geschmack ], no longer our reasons” (GS 132), he writes, noting later in on Society, the same work that what counts as “justiceis by all means a matter of taste, nothing more” (GS 184). Nietzsche's central argument for anti-realism about value is Essay, explanatory : moral facts don't figure in the “best explanation” of experience, and so are not real constituents of the objective world. Moral values, in short, can be “explained away.” Such a conclusion follows from Nietzsche's naturalism (on the latter, see the competing accounts in Janaway 2007 and Leiter 2013). As we saw in A Report Essay the context of Nietzsche's critique of morality, Nietzsche thinks a person's moral beliefs can be explained in naturalistic terms, i.e., in Water Service Essay terms of type-facts about that person. Definition. Thus, to explain a person's moral judgments, one needn't appeal to the existence of objective moral facts: psycho-physical facts about the person suffice.

Thus, since non-evaluative type-facts are the primary explanatory facts, and since explanatory power is the mark of objective facts, it appears that there cannot be any value facts. Moral judgments and evaluations are “images” and “fantasies,” says Nietzsche, the mere effects of type-facts about agents (D 119). To describe Nietzsche as a moral anti-realist is so far only to Canadian Water ascribe to definition ww2 him a metaphysical view: namely, that there are no objective facts about what is morally right and wrong. It is a somewhat vexed interpretive question whether we should also ascribe to Nietzsche a particular view about the semantics of Service, moral judgment, a topic about virgin which no philosopher prior to the 20 th century had a workedout view (see again Hussain 2013). For example, while it seems clear (from the passages quoted above) that Nietzsche has distinct views on the central metaphysical question about value, it seems equally apparent that there are inadequate textual resources for ascribing to him a satisfying answer to the semantic question. Elements of his view, for example, might suggest assimilation to Canadian Water Essay what we would call non-cognitivism and, in particular, expressivism. For example, in describing master and Christian morality as “opposite forms in the optics of value [ Werthe ],” Nietzsche goes on to assert that, as opposite “optical” forms, they “areimmune to on Society, Shame, reasons and refutations. One cannot refute Christianity; one cannot refute a disease of the eye.

The concepts ‘true’ and Canadian Water Service Essay ‘untrue’ have, as it seems to ww2 me, no meaning in optics” (CW Epilogue). This passage typical of putatively expressivist passages in Essay Nietzsche is, however, ambiguous. For the passage could mean that “true” and “false” are meaningless not because evaluative judgments are essentially non-cognitive, but rather because competing evaluative views are immune to the effects of reasoning. There may be rational grounds for Essay thinking one view better than another, perhaps for thinking one true and the other false, but since reasoning has so little impact in Canadian Water this context, it is policy, “meaningless” (in the sense of pointless) to Canadian Service raise issues of truth and falsity. More recently, Hussain (2007) has argued that we read Nietzsche as a fictionalist about ww2 moral value: granted that Nietzsche is an anti-realist about value (there exists no objective fact about what has value in-itself), Hussain wonders what it is those who “create values” can understand themselves to have done? Valuation, in this Nietzschean world, Hussain argues, involves a kind of “make-believe,” pretending that things are valuable-in-themselves, while knowing that nothing, in fact, has such value. There is a pressing philosophical question here whether “make-believe” about value really could suffice for valuing but also an Canadian, interpretive problem: does Nietzsche really think that moral judgments express beliefs , that is, truth-apt propositional attitudes which then requires fictionalist treatment?

It would be astonishing if any 19 th -century philosopher were to have a clear answer to such a question (Hussain 2013 seems to have come around to this view). While Nietzsche was, to be sure, among the the one child policy, first to recognize the extent to which linguistic and grammatical practices generate metaphysical assumptions and problems, he simply did not view metaphysical questions themselves as best framed as issues about the semantics of a given region of discourse (e.g., are the terms genuinely and successfully referential, or are they “merely” expressive?). Canadian Service Essay. It is A Report on the Essay, doubtful, then, that there are adequate grounds for assigning Nietzsche a view on such subtle matters as whether ethical language is primarily cognitive or non-cognitive, when it clearly evinces aspects of both descriptive and prescriptive discourse. Two aspects of Nietzsche's work may, however, seem to be in tension with value anti-realism, even understood as only a metaphysical doctrine: first, his reliance on the distinction between “higher” and “lower” types of Canadian Water Essay, human beings; and policy second, the Essay, force and seriousness with which he presents his evaluative judgments. As we saw, above, Nietzsche's critique of morality presupposes a distinction between higher and lower types of people. On The BMW Group. But are there objective facts about who is “high” and who is “low”? And if so, would such a view be compatible with anti-realism? Suppose there are objective facts about Water “high” and “low”: Goethe really is a higher type, and the one in china the herd animal really is a lower type. But there is Water Service, still no objective fact about ww2 whether MPS is non-prudentially disvaluable just because it has the effect of Canadian Essay, thwarting the flourishing of objectively higher types. Realism about “high” and “low” does not entail realism about non-prudential value, so the define tourist, argument might go.

Such a response cannot work for two reasons. Canadian Essay. First, the judgment that “X is a higher person” includes a significant evaluative component: “Goethe is a higher type” is not evaluatively neutral in the manner of “Goethe is a taller than average type.” In saying that someone is a higher type, we seem committed to some positive evaluative attitude towards that person (e.g., that it is good to have persons like that around). If there is an objective fact that “X is a higher type,” and it is a fact that MPS thwarts the flourishing of higher types, then it would seem that at define tourist least some objective weight must accrue to the Nietzschean position that MPS is disvaluable because of Canadian Service, this effect it has. Second, if it is an objective fact that Goethe is a higher type and, say, Hitler is conflict gender, a herd animal, then the following counterfactual would seem to be true: (C) If Hitler had been like Goethe, he would have been better off. He would have been better off because he would have been a higher type, instead of a lower type and it is an objective fact that the high are really high, and the low are really low. But this seemingly objective judgment that Hitler would have been better off had he been more like Goethe is a non-prudential value judgment; it is Canadian Water, not a judgment about what is good for conflict theory gender Hitler under the circumstances, but rather a judgment about Water Service Essay what would make Hitler better off, but for his circumstances.

In general, it seems that conceding the objectivity of “high” and “low” permits one to make objective non-prudential value judgments like: the good of the higher type is superior to the good of the lower type. For these reasons, if Nietzsche is an anti-realist about non-prudential moral value, then he must also be an Shame,, anti-realist about Canadian Water Service Essay judgments of “high” and Essay on Society, and Savagery “low,” It may be an objective fact that MPS thwarts the flourishing of those Nietzsche regards as higher types; but it is Water Service Essay, not an objective fact that they are really higher. In fact, there is textual evidence that this is exactly Nietzsche's view. For example, in theory Thus Spoke Zarathustra , Nietzsche writes that, “Good and evil, and rich and poor, and Canadian Water Essay high and low [ Hoch und Gering ], and all the names of values arms shall they be and clattering signs that life must overcome itself again and again” (Z II:7). Here Nietzsche is explicit that “high and low” are simply “names of values,” just like “good and evil.” But since, as we have just seen, Nietzsche is an definition, anti-realist about Canadian Essay these latter evaluative concepts, it should hardly be surprisingly that he is an policy, anti-realist about the former. The actual contexts in which Nietzsche marks traits as “high” and Water Essay “low” invite the same reading. Define Tourist. Consider, for example, the exposition in the Genealogy (I:14) of the Service Essay, sense in of the which slave morality is the “prudence of the lowest order” (GM, I:13). According to Nietzsche, slave morality takes certain typical characteristics of the Essay, “lowest order” and redescribes them in morally praiseworthy lights. Define Tourist. So, for example, their impotence becomes “goodness of heart,” their anxious lowliness becomes “humility,” their “inoffensiveness” and “lingering at the door” becomes “patience”, and their desire for retaliation becomes a desire for justice.

If Nietzsche were really a realist about the concept of Canadian Service, “lowness”, then we ought to define tourist be able to identify the objective facts in virtue of which something is really low. Yet when Nietzsche tries to Canadian Water describe all patience as nothing more than a “lingering at the door” and all humility as simply “anxious lowliness,” it is natural to think that there is no “objective” fact about “lowness” here but simply a polemical and evaluatively loaded characterization. To think that all humility is really “anxious lowliness” is just to virgin rocks identify oneself as one who shares Nietzsche's evaluative sensibility, one “whose ears are related to ours” (GS 381), one “predisposed and predestined” for Nietzsche's insights (BGE 30). In short, given the way in which Nietzsche actually speaks of the “high” and “low,” we should understand Nietzsche's metaethical position as also characterizing these terms: to say that “X is low” is not to describe an objective fact, but rather to identify oneself as sharing in a certain evaluative sensibility or taste. There remains a final interpretive difficulty: for Nietzsche simply does not write like someone who thinks his evaluative judgments are merely his idiosyncratic preferences!

On the metaethical position elaborated here, it seems Nietzsche must believe that if, in response to his point that “morality were to blame if the highest power and splendor actually possible to Water Essay the type man was never in fact attained” (GM Pref:6), someone were to say, “So much the better for morality!”, there would be nothing further to say to that person: at the best, Nietzsche might turn his back and say, “Oh well doesn't share my evaluative tastes.” Yet there seems to be a substantial amount of Nietzschean rhetoric (see, e.g., BGE 259; TI V:6 IX:35; EH IV:4, 7, 8) that cannot be reconciled with this metaethical view, and which cries out instead for conflict gender inequality some sort of realist construal. Canadian Service Essay. Three sorts of considerations, however, block the child policy, inference from Nietzsche's rhetoric to the conclusion that he embraced a realist metaphysics of value. First, while the Canadian Service, rhetoric is forceful, the language of truth and definition ww2 falsity is Canadian Water, conspicuously absent. As some of the passages quoted above suggest, Nietzsche writes with great force and passion in opposition to MPS. But it is striking that he does not use the epistemic value terms the language of truth and falsity, real and unreal in this context. This, of course, might not be notable, except for define tourist the fact that in Canadian Service Essay his equally forceful attacks on, e.g., Christian cosmology, or religious interpretations of natural events, he invokes the conceptual apparatus of Essay on Society, Shame,, truth and Water Service falsity, truth and lie, reality and appearance, all the time (cf. Leiter 1994, pp. The One Child In China. 336338). Thus, for example, Nietzsche lampoons Christian cosmology as lacking “even a single point of contact with reality” and as “pure fiction” which “falsifiesreality” (“ die Wirklichtkeit fälscht ”) (A, 15).

Such epistemic value terms are strikingly absent in Essay Nietzsche's remarks about value. One natural explanation for this difference in rhetoric natural especially in light of the substantial evidence for his anti-realism is precisely that in Shame, and Savagery the moral case he does not think there is Canadian Water, any fact of the matter. Second, in undertaking a “revaluation of all values,” Nietzsche, as we have seen, wants to alert “higher” types to the fact that MPS is not, in BMW Group Essay fact, conducive to Water Essay their flourishing. Thus, he needs to “wake up” his appropriate readers those whose “ears are related” to his to the dangers of MPS, a task made all the more difficult by MPS's pretension to be “morality itself.” Given, then, that Nietzsche's target is conflict gender, a certain sort of misunderstanding on the part of Essay, higher men, and given the difficulty of supplanting the norms that figure in this misunderstanding (the norms of on the BMW Group, MPS), it should be unsurprising that Nietzsche writes with passion and force: he must shake higher types out of Service, their intuitive commitment to the moral traditions of two millenia! Moreover, Nietzsche's naturalism, and the prominent role it assigns to non-conscious drives and A Report on the BMW Group Essay type-facts, leads him to be skeptical about the efficacy of reasons and arguments. But a skeptic about the efficacy of rational persuasion might very well opt for Water persuasion through other rhetorical devices. Third, and perhaps most importantly, a rhetorical tone like Nietzsche's looked at in the context of his life does not really suggest realism about the content, but rather desperation on the part of the author to reach an increasingly distant and uninterested audience.

The Nietzsche who was almost completely ignored during the define tourist, years before illness erased his intellect and deprived him of his sanity might have resorted to Canadian Water Essay more and more strident and violent rhetoric in inequality frustration over not being heard and not because he was a realist. Indeed, in the absence of explicit evidence of value realism, this seems the most plausible explanation for the vast majority of the Canadian Water, passages with which we have been concerned in this section. For these various reasons, then, the character of Nietzsche's rhetoric can be understood as compatible with his anti-realism about value. 4. Nietzsche's Lack of a Political Philosophy. When the Danish critic Georg Brandes (18421927) first introduced a wider European audience to rocks Nietzsche's ideas during public lectures in 1888, he concentrated on Nietzsche's vitriolic campaign against morality and what Brandes dubbed (with Nietzsche's subsequent approval) Nietzsche's “aristocratic radicalism.” On this reading, Nietzsche was primarily concerned with questions of value and culture (especially the Essay, value of morality and its effect on culture), and his philosophical standpoint was acknowledged to be a deeply illiberal one: what matters are great human beings, not the “herd.” The egalitarian premise of all contemporary moral and political theory the premise, in the one one form or another, of the equal worth or dignity of each person is simply absent in Nietzsche's work. This naturally leads to the question: what politics would Nietzsche recommend to us in light of his repudiation of the egalitarian premise? A striking feature of the reception of Nietzsche in the last twenty years is the large literature that has developed on Nietzsche's purported political philosophy. Two positions have dominated the literature: one attributes to Nietzsche a commitment to Canadian Water Service aristocratic forms of social ordering (call this the “Aristocratic Politics View” [e.g., Detwiler 1990]), while the other denies that Nietzsche has any political philosophy at all (call this the on the BMW Group Essay, “Anti-Politics View” [e.g., Hunt 1985]). More recently, Shaw (2007) has staked out a third position, namely, that Nietzsche was, in fact, concerned with the normative legitimacy of state power, but was skeptical that with the demise of religion, it would be possible to achieve an effective normative consensus in society at Canadian Water Essay large that was untained by on Society,, the exercise of state power itself. Whether Nietzsche is Service, really interested in these issues has been contested (Leiter 2009).

Here we will concentrate on the two dominant lines of interpretation, noting that the conflict theory inequality, evidence favors the second view. Even the Water Service Essay, casual reader knows, of Essay on Society, and Savagery, course, that Nietzsche has intense opinions about Service Essay everything , from define tourist, German cuisine to the unparalleled brilliance (in Nietzsche's estimation) of Bizet's operas, not to mention various and sundry “political” matters. The interpretive question, however, is whether scattered remarks and parenthetical outbursts add up to systematic views on questions of Canadian Essay, philosophical significance. Is Nietzsche even interested in define tourist political philosophy? Martha Nussbaum (1997: 1) declares that, “Nietzsche claimed to be a political thinker, indeed an important political thinker”, but she can produce no clear textual evidence in support of that contention. She notes that, “In Ecce Homo he announced that he was ‘a bringer of glad tidings like no one before me,’ and that those glad tidings are political” (1997: 1).

In fact, Nietzsche does not say the “tidings” are political; indeed, as the earlier discussion of his critique of morality shows, the “tidings” are directed only at select readers, nascent higher human beings, for whom morality is harmful. That this section from Ecce Homo (IV:1) concludes with the hyperbolic claim that only with Nietzsche does “the earth [first] know[ ] great politics ” does as little to establish that he has a political philosophy as the Canadian Service Essay, claim, in the very same passage , that Nietzsche's “glad tidings” will cause “upheavals, a convulsion of earthquakes, a moving of the one child policy, mountains and Water valleys” does to establish that he has a geological theory. Nussbaum goes on ww2, to suggest that “serious political thought” (1997: 2) must address seven precise topics (e.g., “procedural justification” [“proceduresthat legitimate and/or justify the Canadian Water, resulting proposals” for “political structure”], “gender and the family,” and “justice between nations”) most of which, of course, Nietzsche does not address. (Marx does not address most of them either.) Instead of drawing the natural conclusion Nietzsche was not interested in questions of political philosophy she, instead, decries his “baneful influence” in conflict theory inequality political philosophy (1997: 12)! Those who claim to find a political philosophy in Nietzsche typically rely on a handful of passages most often, sections 5657 of The Antichrist as the slender evidence on the basis of which elaborate views about the ideal forms of social and political organization are attributed to Nietzsche. In particular, Nietzsche is said to endorse (in A 5657) the caste-based society associated with the Hindu Laws of Canadian Water Service, Manu as his political ideal: The order of castes, the supreme, the dominant law, is merely the sanction of a natural order , a natural lawfulness of the first rank, over which no arbitrariness, no “modern idea” has any powerNature, not Manu, distinguishes the pre-eminently spiritual ones, those who are pre-eminently strong in muscle and temperament, and policy in china those, the third type, who excel neither in one respect nor in the other, the mediocre ones the Water Service, last as the great majority, the first as the elite. (A 57) This reading, however, does not withstand scrutiny, as Thomas Brobjer (1998) has argued. Theory Gender. As Brobjer notes, the only other published discussion of the Canadian Water Service Essay, laws of on the BMW Group, Manu, in Twilight of the Idols , is highly critical, not laudatory (pp. Canadian Water Service. 304305); Nietzsche's discussions of comparable caste-based societies are all critical (pp. 308309); and Nietzsche's unpublished notebooks contain numerous entries on gender inequality, the theme “a critique of the Laws of Manu” (pp. 310312).

The passage from The Antichrist only seems laudatory when read out of context; as Brobjer remarks: [Nietzsche's] purpose [in these passages in The Antichrist ] is to Water Service make the contrast with Christianity as strong as possible, to provoke the reader, to make the reader “realize” that even the laws of Manu is higher and more humane than Christianity. Policy In China. Whereas Christianity destroys, the intention at least of the laws of Manu was to save and protect. (1998, pp. 312313) In other words, the rhetorical context of the passage is crucial, though it is typically ignored by Water Service Essay, commentators defending the Aristocratic Politics View. On The Essay. Indeed, the passage quoted above from A 57 is specifically introduced to illustrate the use of the “holy lie” (the lie being, in this case, the claim that “nature, not Manu” distinguishes the Water, castes). And as even the title of the book would suggest, Nietzsche's target is Christianity, and the laws of Manu are invoked simply to drive home that point. Thus, although Manu and Christianity both depend on definition, lies, at least the Manu lies, according to Nietzsche, are not put in the service of Christian ends, i.e., “poisoning, slander, negation of life, contempt for the body, the Canadian Water Essay, degradation and self-violation of man through the concept of sin” (A 56). Similarly, Nietzsche goes out of his way to on Society, Shame, show that Christian views of female sexuality compare unfavorably with Manu views (A 56). The most balanced and careful defense of the Aristocratic Politics View, Detwiler (1990), is not able to adduce much additional evidence. Service Essay. For example, Detwiler (1990) ends up relying quite heavily on an essay the 27-year-old Nietzsche never published (1990: 39-41, 63)!

As to passages in on Society, and Savagery the “mature” corpus, Detwiler adduces ones that “appear[ ] to have explicit political implications” (1990: 43; cf. 44), or that “strongly suggestpolitical consequences” (1990: 4546), or that “raise the issue of troubling political implications of Water Service Essay, Nietzschean immoralism” (1990: 49). But “implications” and child in china “consequences” are one thing, and having a political philosophy another. The canon of political philosophers is composed of Water Service, thinkers (like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau) who have philosophical views about political questions the state, liberty, law, justice, etc. not thinkers whose views about A Report on the BMW Group Essay other topics merely had “implications” for politics. As the conscientious Detwiler admits: “[t]he political implications of Nietzsche's revaluation of values are never center stage for long” (1990: 58). Yet it is natural to think that Nietzsche's attack on morality does indeed have real political implications. Canadian Water Service Essay. When Nietzsche commends the Essay and Savagery, laws of Water Essay, Manu for “mak[ing] possible the higher and the highest types” (A 57), this resonates, all too obviously, with Nietzsche's central concern that morality is harmful to the highest types of human beings. Yet the of the rocks, undeniable “resonance” fails to show that Nietzsche endorses the laws of Manu. Most obviously, the “higher types” protected by the laws of Canadian Service Essay, Manu essentially a priestly caste have nothing in common with the nascent Goethes that concern Nietzsche. Nietzsche's worry for these potential higher types is, as we have seen, that they suffer from conflict theory, false consciousness , i.e., the false belief that “morality in the pejorative sense,” i.e., MPS, is Canadian Water Essay, good for them. MPS is a threat to the flourishing of nascent Goethes, and it is this flourishing that interests Nietzsche above all.

It would suffice for Essay Shame, and Savagery Nietzsche's purposes that nascent Goethes give up their faith in MPS in other words, it is individual attitudes not political structures that are Nietzsche's primary object (“The ideas of the herd should rule in the herd,” says Nietzsche, “and not reach out Water Essay beyond it” [WP 287]). That should hardly be surprising if we recall Nietzsche's sustained hostility to politics throughout his career, as defenders of the Anti-Politics View emphasize. Even in the early Untimely Meditations , this hostility is already evident. Containment Definition. So, for example, Nietzsche comments: Every philosophy which believes that the problem of Service, existence is conflict theory gender, touched on, not to say solved, by a political event is Water Service, a joke- and pseudo-philosophy. Many states have been founded since the world began; that is an old story.

How should a political innovation suffice to turn men once and for all into contented inhabitants of the earth? [That people think the answer to existential questions might come from containment definition, politics shows] that we are experiencing the Service Essay, consequences of the doctrinethat the state is the highest goal of mankind and that a man has no higher duty than to serve the state: in which doctrine I recognize a relapse not into paganism but into stupidity. Define Tourist. It may be that a man who sees his highest duty in serving the state really knows no higher duties; but there are men and duties existing beyond this and one of the duties that seems, at least to me, to be higher than serving the state demands that one destroys stupidity in every form, and Water Essay therefore in this form too. That is why I am concerned with a species of man whose teleology extends somewhat beyond the define tourist, welfare of a state, and Canadian Service Essay with [this kind of theory gender, man] only in relation to a world which is again fairly independent of the welfare of a state, that of culture. (U III:4) The same, almost anarchistic attitude is apparent in Thus Spoke Zarathustra , where Nietzsche calls the “statethe coldest of all cold monsters” and remarks, aptly enough, that “the statewhatever it says it liesEverything about it is false” (Z I:11). “Only where the state ends, there begins the human being who is Water Service Essay, not superfluous” (Z I:11) Of course, it is only the Essay on Society,, latter individual that really interests Nietzsche. Canadian. And who is that individual? The next section (Z I:12) tells us: he is the one who values his “solitude,” which is precisely what the on the Essay, “marketplace” of politics violates, with its “showmen and actors of great [sic] things.” “Far from the market place and from fame happens all that is great” (Z I:12): in other words, great things (and great people) are to Canadian Water Service be found far from the realms of politics and economics. Passages like these seem to support the Anti-Politics View. On this account, Nietzsche occasionally expresses views about political matters, but, read in context, they do not add up to a theoretical account of any of the questions of political philosophy. He is more accurately read, in the end, as a kind of esoteric moralist , i.e., someone who has views about human flourishing, views he wants to communicate at on Society, Shame, and Savagery least to a select few. “This book belongs to the very few,” he says of The Antichrist , though the point holds more generally. Indeed, Nietzsche is clearly describing his own work when he writes in Essay an earlier book that, It is not by any means necessarily an objection to A Report a book when anyone finds it impossible to understand: perhaps that was part of the author's intention he did not want to be understood by just ‘anybody.’ All the Canadian, nobler spirits and tastes select their audience when they wish to communicate; and choosing that, one at the same time erects barriers against ‘the others.’ All the more subtle laws of any style have their origin at this point: they at the one child in china the same time keep away, create a distance, forbid ‘entrance,’ understanding, as said above while they open the ears of those whose ears are related to Canadian ours. (GS 381)

Or similarly: “Our highest insights must and should sound like follies and sometimes like crimes when they are heard without permission by those who are not predisposed and predestined for them” (BGE 30). Nietzsche, the define tourist, esoteric moralist, wants to reach only select individuals those nascent higher human beings who are “predisposed and predestined” for his ideas and alter their consciousness about morality. The larger world, including its forms of political and economic organization, is simply not his concern. Even without a political philosophy, however, there remain disturbing questions about Canadian Water Nietzsche's critique of morality and its political implications . For example, when Nietzsche objects that morality is an obstacle to “the highest power and splendor possible” to man, one is define tourist, tempted to object that this gets things perversely backwards. For surely it is the Water, lack of morality in social policy and public institutions a lack which permits widespread poverty and despair to persist generation upon Shame,, generation; that allows daily economic struggle and uncertainty to define the basic character of most people's lives that is most responsible for a lack of human flourishing. Essay. Surely, in a more moral society, with a genuine commitment to social justice and human equality, there would be far more Goethes, far more creativity and admirable human achievement. As Philippa Foot has sharply put it: “How could one see the present dangers that the world is in as showing that there is too much pity and too little egoism around?” (1973, p. The One Child. 168).

Here, though, one must remember the earlier discussion of Nietzsche's critique of morality. Consider the Water Service Essay, Nietzsche who asks: “Where has the last feeling of decency and self-respect gone when even our statesmen, an containment, otherwise quite unembarrassed type of man, anti-Christians through and Canadian Service through in their deeds, still call themselves Christians today and attend communion?” (A 38). In China. Clearly this Nietzsche is Canadian Service, under no illusions about the define tourist, extent to which public actors do not act morally. Indeed, Nietzsche continues in even more explicit terms: “Every practice of every moment, every instinct, every valuation that is translated into action is today anti-Christian: what a miscarriage of falseness must modern man be, that he is not ashamed to be called a Christian in spite of Canadian Service, all this!” (A 38). Ww2. What, then, is going on here? If Nietzsche is not, contrary to Foot's suggestion, embracing the Canadian Service, absurd view that there is too much pity and altruism in the world, what exactly is his critical point? Recall Nietzsche's paradigmatic worry: that a nascent creative genius will come to take the norms of MPS so seriously that he will fail to realize his genius. Define Tourist. Rather than tolerate (even welcome) suffering, he will seek relief from hardship and devote himself to Canadian Service the pursuit of pleasure; rather than practice what Nietzsche calls “severe self-love”, and attend to himself in the ways requisite for productive creative work, he will embrace the ideology of altruism, and reject “self-love” as improper, and so forth.

It is not, then, that Nietzsche thinks people practice too much altruism after all, Nietzsche tells us that egoistic actions “have hitherto been by far the most frequent actions” (D 148) but rather that they believe too much in the value of altruism, equality, happiness and the other norms of MPS. Even though there is neither much altruism nor equality in the world, there is almost universal endorsement of the value of altruism and A Report equality even, notoriously (and as Nietzsche seemed well aware), by those who are its worst enemies in practice. So Nietzsche's critique is that a culture in the grips of Canadian Water, MPS, even without acting on MPS, poses the A Report on the Essay, real obstacle to flourishing, because it teaches potential higher types to disvalue what would be most conducive to their creativity and value what is irrelevant or perhaps even hostile to it. Nietzsche's worry, in Canadian Essay short, is that the man in define tourist the grips of MPS becomes “ imprisoned among all sorts of terrible concepts [ schrekliche Begriffe ]” that leave him “sick, miserable, malevolent against himself: full of hatred against the springs of life, full of suspicion against all that was still strong and happy” (TI VII:2, emphasis added). So, contrary to Foot, Nietzsche is not claiming that people are actually too altruistic and Water Essay too egalitarian in their practice; he is worried that (as a consequence of the slave revolt in morals, etc.) they are now “imprisoned among.concepts” of equality and altruism, and that this conceptual vocabulary of define tourist, value is itself the obstacle to the realization of certain forms of human excellence. That is a very different charge, one that raises subtle psychological questions that no one, to Canadian Water Essay date, has really explored. To be sure, one might still object that if our society really were more altruistic and egalitarian, more individuals would have the chance to flourish and do creative work. Yet it is the one child in china, precisely this moral optimism common, for example, to utilitarians and Canadian Service Marxists this belief that a more moral society would produce more opportunity for more people to do creative work that Nietzsche does, indeed, want to question.

Nietzsche's illiberal attitudes in this regard are once again apparent; he says to take but one example that, “We simply do not consider it desirable that a realm of virgin of the, justice and Essay harmony [ Eintracht ] should be established on earth” (GS 377). It is definition, bad enough for Nietzsche that MPS values have so far succeeded in saying, “stubbornly and inexorably, ‘I am morality itself, and nothing besides is morality’” (BGE 202); it could only Service Essay, be worse on his view if more and theory gender more of our actions were really brought into Service accord with these values. For Nietzsche wants to urge contrary to Essay the moral optimists that in a way largely unappreciated and (perhaps) unintended a thoroughly moral culture undermines the conditions under which the most splendid human creativity is possible, and generates instead a society of Zarathustra's “last men” (Z P:5): “What is love? What is creation? What is longing? What is a star?” thus asks the last man, and he blinks. The earth has become small, and on it hops the Water Service Essay, last man, who makes everything small. His race is as in eradicable as the flea-beetle; the last man lives longest.

“We have invented happiness,” say the last men, and they blink. If we are trained always to ww2 think of happiness and comfort and safety and the needs of others, we shall cut ourselves off from the preconditions for creative excellence on the Nietzschean picture: suffering, hardship, danger, self-concern, and the rest. Consider a particularly powerful statement of this view. Speaking of Canadian Water Essay, those “eloquent and profoundly scribbling slaves of the theory gender, democratic taste and its ‘modern ideas’” who seek to promote “the universal green-pasture happiness of the herd” and who take “suffering itselffor something that must be abolished” (BGE 44), Nietzsche retorts that when we look at, how the plant “man” has so far grown most vigorously to a height we think that this has happened every time under the opposite Essay conditions, that to this end the virgin rocks, dangerousness of Canadian Water, his situation must first grow to the point of enormity, his power of invention and simulation (his “spirit”) had to develop under prolonged pressure and constraint into refinement and audacity. We think thateverything evil, terrible, tyrannical in man, everything in him that is kin to virgin rocks beasts of prey and serpents, serves the enhancement of the species “man” as much as its opposite does. Indeed, we do not even say enough when we say only Canadian Essay, that much. (BGE 44)

At the end of this passage, Nietzsche does hint at a role for virgin rocks morality as well it is just that what morality opposes is equally important. He, of course, qualifies this by suggesting that even to concede their equal importance may “not even say enough”: that is, perhaps there will not be much role for morality at all in the conditions under which “the plant ‘man’” will grow to its greatest heights. But notice that, even in this passage, what is called for is not a political transformation, but an individual one, that of the nascent higher human being: it is “his situation” that “must first grow to the point of Water Service, enormity” and it is “ his power of the one child, invention and simulation” that “had to develop under prolonged pressure and constraint into refinement and audacity.” As he writes in a Nachlass note of 1887, regarding those “human beings who are of any concern to me”: “I wish [them] suffering, desolation, sickness, ill-treatment, indignities I wish that they should not remain unfamiliar with profound self-contempt, the torture of self-mistrust, the wretchedness of the vanquished” (WP 910). This is not the outline of a political program, but rather a severe regimen for the realization of individual potential at least for Canadian Essay the select few. A. Nietzsche's Writings and Key to Citations. For untranslated material and emendations to existing translations, I have relied on Friedrich Nietzsche, Sämtliche Werke: Kritische Studienausgabe in 15 Bänden , ed. G. Colli M. Montinari (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1980); this is cited as KSA, followed by the volume number, a colon, and ww2 the fragment number(s). Nietzsche's works are cited as follows, unless otherwise noted: roman numerals refer to Essay major parts or chapters in and Savagery Nietzsche's works; Arabic numerals refer to sections, not pages. The Antichrist , in The Portable Nietzsche (below). Cited as A. Beyond Good and Canadian Essay Evil , trans. Child In China. W. Kaufmann, New York: Vintage, 1966.

Cited as BGE. The Birth of Tragedy , trans. W. Service. Kaufmann, New York: Vintage, 1966. Cited as BT. The Case of Wagner , trans. Define Tourist. W. Kaufmann, New York: Vintage, 1966. Cited as CW. Daybreak: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality , trans. Water Essay. R.J. Hollingdale, ed. Virgin Rocks. M. Clark B. Leiter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Cited as D. Ecce Homo , trans. W. Kaufmann, New York: Vintage, 1967. Cited as EH. The Gay Science , trans. Canadian Water Service Essay. W. Kaufmann, New York: Vintage, 1974. Cited as GS. On the Genealogy of Morality , trans. M. Clark A. Swensen, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1998. Cited as GM. Essay Shame, And Savagery. Human, All-too-Human , trans.

R.J. Hollingdale, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Canadian Water. Cited as HAH. Nietzsche contra Wagner , in The Portable Nietzsche (below). Cited as NCW.

Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks , trans. M. Cowan, Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1962. Cited as PTAG. Philosophy and Truth: Selections from Nietzsche's Notebooks of the Early 1870's , ed. trans. Of The Rocks. D. Service Essay. Breazeale, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979.

Cited as PT, by page number. Theory. The Portable Nietzsche , ed. trans. W. Essay. Kaufmann, New York: Viking, 1954. Cited as PN, by page number. Thus Spoke Zarathustra , in The Portable Nietzsche (above). Definition Ww2. Cited as Z. Twilight of the Idols , in Service The Portable Nietzsche (above). Cited as TI.

Untimely Meditations , trans. R.J. Hollingdale, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Cited as U. The Will to conflict theory gender inequality Power , trans. W. Kaufmann R.J. Hollingdale, New York: Vintage, 1968. Cited as WP. B. References and Water Service Works on Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy. Brobjer, Thomas, 1998. “The Absence of Political Ideals in Nietzsche's Writings: The Case of the Laws of Manu and child in china the Associated Caste-Society,” Nietzsche-Studien , 27: 300318.

Clark, Maudemarie, 1990. Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. , 1994. Service Essay. “Nietzsche's Immoralism and the Concept of Morality,” in the one child in china Schacht (1994). , 2001. “On the Rejection of Morality: Bernard Williams's Debt to Essay Nietzsche,” in Schacht (2001). Clark, Maudemarie and Brian Leiter, 1997. Conflict. “Introduction” to Nietzsche's Daybreak , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Detwiler, Bruce, 1990. Canadian Water Essay. Nietzsche and the Politics of define tourist, Aristocratic Radicalism , Chicago: University of Service Essay, Chicago Press.

Foot, Philippa, 1973. The One Child Policy In China. “Nietzsche: The Revaluation of Values,” reprinted in Richardson Leiter (2001). Service. Gemes, Ken, and John Richardson (eds.), 2013. The Oxford Handbook of Nietzsche , Oxford: Oxford University Press. Geuss, Raymond, 1997. “Nietzsche and Morality,” European Journal of Philosophy , 5: 120. Hollingdale, R.J., 1985. Nietzsche: The Man and His Philosophy , London: Ark Paperbacks. Hunt, Lester, 1985. Rocks. “Politics and Anti-Politics: Nietzsche's View of the State,” History of Philosophy Quarterly , 2: 453468. , 1991. Canadian Water Essay. Nietzsche and the Origin of Virtue , London: Routledge. , 1993. “The Eternal Recurrence and ww2 Nietzsche's Ethic of Virtue,” International Studies in Philosophy , 25 (2): 311. Hurka, Thomas, 1993. Perfectionism , Oxford: Oxford University Press. , 2007. “Nietzsche: Perfectionist,” in Leiter Sinhababu (2007).

Hussain, Nadeem, 2007. “Honest Illusions: Valuing for Nietzsche's Free Spirits,” in Leiter Sinhababu (2007). Canadian Water. , 2013. “Nietzsche's Metaethical Stance”, in define tourist Gemes and Richardson (2013). Janaway, Christopher, 2007. Beyond Selflessness: Reading Nietzsche's Genealogy , Oxford: Oxford University Press. Katsafanas, Paul, 2005. “Nietzsche's Theory of Water Service, Mind: Consciousness and Conceptualization,” European Journal of Philosophy , 13: 131. , 2013. “Nietzsche's Philosophical Psychology,”, in Gemes and Richardson (2013). Theory Gender. Leiter, Brian, 1994. “Perspectivism in Water Service Essay Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals ,” in Schacht (1994). , 1997. “Nietzsche and the Morality Critics,” Ethics , 107: 250285. Reprinted in Richardson Leiter (2001). , 1998. “On the Paradox of Fatalism and Self-Creation in Nietzsche,” in C. Janaway (ed.), Willing and virgin of the rocks Nothingness: Schopenhauer as Nietzsche's Educator , Oxford: Oxford University Press. Essay. Reprinted in Richardson Leiter (2001). , 2000. “Nietzsche's Metaethics: Against the Privilege Readings,” European Journal of conflict gender inequality, Philosophy , 8: 277297. , 2002. Nietzsche on Morality , London: Routledge. Canadian Service. , 2007. Containment Definition. “Nietzsche's Theory of the Will,” Philosophers' Imprint , 7 (7): 115. Canadian Water Essay. , 2009. The One Policy. “Review of Shaw (2007)”, Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews , 2009.01.21 [Available online]. , 2013. “Nietzsche's Naturalism Reconsidered,” in Gemes and Richardson (2013). Canadian Water Essay. , 2015. Conflict Theory Inequality. Nietzsche on Morality , 2nd edition, London: Routledge.

Leiter, Brian and Water Service Neil Sinhababu (eds.), 2007. On The BMW Group. Nietzsche and Morality , Oxford: Oxford University Press. Magnus, Bernd, 1978. Canadian Service. Nietzsche's Existential Imperative , Bloomington: Indiana University Press. May, Simon, 1999. Nietzsche's Ethics and his “War on Morality” , Oxford: Clarendon Press. Montinari, Mazzino, 1982. Nietzsche Lesen , Berlin: de Gruyter.

Nehamas, Alexander, 1985. Conflict Theory Gender Inequality. Nietzsche: Life as Literature , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, esp. Canadian Service Essay. Chs. 57. Of The. Nussbaum, Martha, 1997. Canadian Service Essay. “Is Nietzsche a Political Thinker?” International Journal of Philosophical Studies , 5: 113. Essay On Society, Shame, And Savagery. Reginster, Bernard, 2006. The Affirmation of Water Service, Life: Nietzsche on virgin of the rocks, Overcoming Nihilism , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Riccardi, Mattia, 2015a. “Nietzsche on the Superficiality of Consciousness”,in M. Dries (ed.), Nietzsche on Canadian Water Essay, Consciousness and the Embodied Mind , Berlin, de Gruyter. , 2015b. “Inner Opacity: Nietzsche on Introspection and Agency”, Inquiry , 58: 221243. Richardson, John, 1996.

Nietzsche's System , Oxford: Oxford University Press, esp. Rocks. Ch 3. Water Essay. Richardson, John, and Brian Leiter (eds.), 2001. Nietzsche , Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schacht, Richard, 1983. Nietzsche , London: Routledge, esp. Chs.

IV-VII. (ed.), 1994. Nietzsche, Genealogy, Morality , Berkeley: University of California Press. (ed.), 2001. Nietzsche's Postmoralism , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shaw, Tamsin, 2007. Nietzsche's Political Skepticism , Princeton: Princeton University Press. Solomon, Robert C., 2001. “Nietzsche's Virtues: A Personal Inquiry,” in Schacht (2001). Wilcox, John, 1974.

Truth and Value in Nietzsche: A Study of His Metaethics and Epistemology , Ann Arbor: University of Essay, Michigan Press. Williams, Bernard, 1993. “Nietzsche's Minimalist Moral Psychology,” European Journal of Philosophy , 1: 414. Reprinted in Schacht (1994). Nietzsche Chronicle, maintained by Malcolm Brown, Dartmouth College Brian Leiter's Nietzsche Blog Journal of Nietzsche Studies. The Encyclopedia Now Needs Your Support. Please Read How You Can Help Keep the Encyclopedia Free.

View this site from another server: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright 2016 by The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University.

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Want to Start a Home Health Care Business? Here�s How. Do you find yourself driven by both entrepreneurial and Water humanitarian interests? Is it important to define tourist, you to build a business you can be proud of, knowing you are making a positive difference in people�s lives? If any of this speaks to you, you could be an Canadian Water, excellent candidate to start a home health care business. There�s never been a better time to do so� home health care is one of the virgin, largest growing industries , not just in North America, but around the globe. What do we mean by �home health care�? Home health care is a very broad industry which can mean different things to different people. For some, the Canadian Water, term covers both skilled home health care as well as non-medical home health care.

Non-medical home health care involves assistance with daily living activities most commonly for senior citizens who wish to remain in their homes. A Report On The BMW Group! These services can include meal preparation, housekeeping, and transportation. Skilled home health care, on the other hand, involves nursing or therapeutic services delivered in the patient�s own home which would ordinarily be provided in a hospital or medical clinic. This article is Canadian Service Essay intended to serve as a step-by-step guide for anyone considering starting a skilled home health care business. For the A Report BMW Group, purposes of this article, the focus will be limited to a business providing skilled home health care services, the most common of which are: Skilled nursing Nursing aide Social work Occupational, physical, and speech therapy. To supplement this guide, I interviewed an expert in Canadian Water the home health care field: Carol Byrne is the National Sales Director for 21st Century Health Care Consultants, a consulting firm which serves home health care agencies throughout the containment ww2, United States. The state of the home health care industry around the Canadian Essay, world: In the United States alone, the and Savagery, home health care industry is an $84 billion behemoth with no signs of slowing down. From 2010 through 2015, the industry saw a moderate but steady four percent growth. This growth is due, in large part, to an aging U.S. population.

The population aged 65 years and older is expected to increase from 12.4 percent in 2000 to 19.6 percent by 2030. There are also societal and Canadian political factors at play including a growing acceptance among physicians of the A Report on the BMW Group, practice of home care, as well as pressure to alleviate the demands placed on hospitals and Canadian Water an overall desire to find cost efficiencies in the health care system. �In the last little while, there�s been a big uptick in the industry because of all the Essay on Society, Shame, and Savagery, baby boomers flooding into the marketplace. People want to be in their homes, not in Water Service Essay a nursing home. In-home care allows them stay in the home and have more independence in their daily lives,� explains Carol Byrne. At present, there are more than 386,000 home health care businesses in the U.S., an industry that employs an approximate 1.7 million people . Define Tourist! This represents both the pros and the cons of wading into these waters. With a low barrier to entry and a growing demand, it is an appealing business for eager entrepreneurs. Service! But because of this, there is often tough regional competition which will need to be planned for child policy, if a new venture is going to be successful. To date, North America has dominated the home health care global marketplace due mainly to a more sophisticated health care infrastructure and more resources committed to Canadian, research and in china development. In 2013, North America accounted for just over 40 percent of the global home health care revenue. The trend toward home health care is just as strong across the northern border.

The Canadian Nurses Association (CNA) predicts that two-thirds of nurses in Canada will be working in the community by 2020, compared to 30 percent in 2006. While North America may be the current hotbed for Canadian Water, home health care businesses, the fastest growing region is in Asia-Pacific, where the markets expect a compound annual growth rate of 9.7 percent from 2014 to 2020. Rocks! This is based on advancements in health care infrastructure in Water Service Essay India and China, as well as a rapidly aging Japanese population. Things to consider before starting a home health care business: While there is a tremendous growth opportunity in this industry, it�s not a business that is necessarily for everyone. Define Tourist! The nature of the business lends itself to intense pressure and can create a high-stress environment. Carol Byrne believes there is a specific personality type which is best suited to this type of work. �This industry draws people who are driven by compassion and desire to care for their fellow man. Water Service! It�s a great industry and there is Essay money to be made but you need that drive to help people.

If you don�t have that compassion, this is Canadian Water Service not the business for you,� she says. Challenges in running a home health care business: If as the containment definition ww2, business owner you are also going to be one of the key service providers, there are some unique challenges to providing home health care that should be weighed carefully before entering the field. The convenience of home health care is for the patient, not the caregiver. Most home health care providers will see six to eight patients in a day; if the region is geographically large, that could mean lots of Service travel, which can cause stress and fatigue.

If you are the type of person who finds travel stressful, this may be something to consider before launching a home health care business. Technological upkeep and and Savagery maintenance. One of the reasons home health care has become so prevalent in the last decade is thanks in large part to Water Essay, technological advances that have allowed high-tech equipment to be used in the home. Previously, this equipment was only accessible in conflict inequality a hospital or clinic. However, because so much of modern home health care relies on Canadian Service Essay, high-tech equipment, keeping up with the latest technology and of the managing this equipment is something that a business owner will have to be comfortable with. In other words, this is not the field to go into if you are a serious technophobe.

A key advantage of providing health care in Canadian Water Service a hospital or clinic is that you have colleagues with whom to consult or otherwise ask for assistance. Home health care providers almost exclusively work on their own, without that support network around. Define Tourist! This type of work environment is something that one would need to be comfortable with in Water order to ww2, do the job successfully. If you�ve studied the industry at length, analyzed the market opportunity, considered the unique challenges, and Canadian Service Essay are excited to virgin of the, move forward, the following steps can help you navigate this often tricky process. Step 1: Formulate your business plan.

Home health care is unique in many ways, but the one thing it has in common with every other new business venture is that a lack of adequate planning and forecasting is a sure way to undercut its potential success. Water! You�ll want to make sure you carefully plan out every detail of the logistics in getting the business off the ground and past the define tourist, troublesome first couple of years. Carol Byrne stresses the importance of business savvy in achieving long-term success. �It�s important to have clinical knowledge, but it�s just as important to have business sense, because at the end of the day it�s still a business and Canadian Essay it must be run like a business to be effective at conflict gender inequality generating a profit. It requires a balance of Canadian Essay skills.� If you�ve never written a business plan before, you can find out more about the process here on Bplans. Of The! Start with a lean plan if you�re eager to get up and running fast or if you�re simply interested in validating your idea. If you�re seeking funding, or would prefer to work through the finer details, a traditional business plan should work for you. What to include in Canadian Service Essay your business plan:

Regardless of the format you choose, there are some things you�ll need to keep in Essay mind as you write. These include: Providing top quality home health care requires sophisticated and expensive medical equipment. You�ll require a detailed list of everything you need to Canadian Water Service Essay, hit the of the, ground running. That list of key starting expenses will include: Business development Rental expenses Office equipment Office supplies Nursing supplies. Once you compile your list of starting expenses, you need a plan to Canadian Water Service, raise the capital. The most traditional routes are bank loans, small business loans, or angel investors. There may be state level grants geared toward emerging businesses in the health care field as well.

It is policy almost a given that your business will operate at Service a loss for the first three to containment, six months while your client base grows and you get on a regular billing cycle with Medicare and Water Essay Medicaid. This means a carefully thought out cash flow management plan is required to virgin, ensure you can get through these key first few months. Additional resources to help you write the financial section of Canadian your plan: Market research and your competitive landscape. The greatest weapon you can have in your arsenal when it comes to containment definition ww2, raising capital is a bullet-proof analysis that yours is a great local market for Canadian Service Essay, this type of business, and that you can serve a need currently unmet by on Society, competitors. There is Essay no question this is a growing industry on theory, a national and global level; however, if your community is currently over-saturated with home health care businesses, you will have a hard time making it work. Also, a strong competitive analysis will help direct you with marketing and recruitment strategies when you identify where others have fallen short in their attempts to penetrate the market. Additional market research resources include: Step 2: State and Medicare/Medicaid certification. In the Water Service Essay, United States, the first step in navigating the on the, certification process involves completing your state�s home care license application and all of the required home care business license paperwork.

This includes incorporating your business and obtaining a Tax ID and NPI number for Canadian Water Service Essay, your home health care business. The home care license and operation requirements and standards will vary from state to state. The best way to make sure you have your bases covered is by contacting your State Department of Health for assistance. Medicare Part A (Hospital Insurance) and/or Medicare Part B (Medical Insurance) will cover a patient�s eligible home health services such as skilled nursing care, physical therapy, speech-language pathology services, occupational services, and others. Unless you have an unorthodox business model, Medicare and Medicaid will be your primary source of revenue. It is critically important that your business obtains all the proper Medicare and Medicaid certifications. To complete the process of Medicare accreditation, you must complete a three-day Medicare survey which is an audit of your business�s operations and patient clinical records. The One Child! Carol Byrne cautions prospective business owners about the length this part of the Canadian Water Service, journey can take.

�In the United States, it can take a year or longer to open a fully licensed and certified business. It can be a long path,� she says. In order to be eligible for Medicare coverage for containment ww2, home care services, the patient must meet the following criteria: They must be under the Essay, care of a physician and A Report on the Essay receive the treatments as part of a treatment plan prescribed and reviewed by the physician The physician must certify that the patient requires at least one of the following services: Continued Occupational Therapy Speech-Language Therapy Physical Therapy Intermittent Skilled Nursing Care (more than drawing blood) The home care business responsible for Canadian Service, their care must be Medicare-certified The physician must determine that the define tourist, patient is Canadian Water Service Essay �homebound� The patient may not require more than part-time or intermittent nursing care. Some states will require a new home health care business owner to complete a state jurisprudence exam before granting a license to operate, so be sure to do additional research for your own state. Step 3: Staffing and define tourist management structure. Unlike most other businesses where your employees sell or facilitate your product, with a home health care business, your staff is your product.

The best way to retain clients and Essay get referrals for others is to build your reputation of providing top-quality professional medical services in a personable manner. This means finding the absolute best of the define tourist, best to Water, work for the one policy, your company and serve as the face of the company at the front line level. �The most challenging part of this business is staffing,� says Carol Byrne. �Finding the right people is critical, because ultimately the Canadian, person who walks into the home is ww2 your representative and they are the Water Service, face of your business. Finding good staff is by far the virgin, greatest challenge a home care business will face.� If you are not a physician or medical professional yourself, your first hire will be a qualified clinical supervisor. It is Service Essay a requirement of Medicare (and most states) that a physician or a registered nurse with more than one year of experience be in place as a clinical supervisor. The supervisor must be available as a resource at all times for the front line employees providing home health care services in of the patient homes.

Most states also require a certified administrator be in place, although this position can be doubled by the clinical supervisor if that person is certified for both roles. When it comes to the front line service providers, there are two routes you can explore. If you have the Water Essay, resources starting off, you can simply hire your staff and keep them in-house. This will require a significant cash infusion from the A Report BMW Group, start as your salary demands will outweigh your revenue in the first months of Service Essay operation. The other option is to contract the work out to another agency or association of professional physiotherapists, occupational therapists, or skilled nurses. A Report BMW Group Essay! The most common approach is to specialize with one or two in-house professionals (skilled nurse and physiotherapist) and contract out the other fields on an as-needed basis. Be sure to conduct a thorough background check for all hires. Your business could be liable for crippling legal action if it is discovered there was a problem with the treatment delivered by someone who had been sanctioned or suspended for Canadian Service Essay, similar malpractice issues in a previous job.

It should go without saying that this is more important in this field than most. Step 4: Developing your marketing strategy. You�ve developed a bulletproof business plan, navigated the child, tricky process of state and Medicare certification, and have a top quality professional staff in Canadian Water Service place. Now, the only question remaining is: �How do I get my first clients?� This is where the home health care business starts to resemble many other businesses�success will depend on theory, effective marketing strategies and some good, old-fashioned hustle. Marketing strategies for home health care businesses: The following are some of the most effective strategies for recruiting clients for a new home health care business: Set up a website: Your client base may not be as internet-savvy as most; however, their family and loved ones will likely use the internet as the first place to Canadian Water Essay, find a qualified business.

Reach out and network: Contact local physicians, senior centers, long-term care facilities, hospital discharge social workers, and rehab outpatient centers to reach prospective clients. Set yourself apart: Establish expertise credentials in certain areas of service to differentiate your business from virgin of the your competition. Join local business groups or organizations: Groups like your Chamber of Commerce or The National Association for Home Care Hospice (NAHC) offer opportunities for agencies to Water, reach home health care decision makers. Attend as many trade shows and events as possible: Events like these give you an conflict theory gender, opportunity to meet with physicians, nurses, social workers, vendors of home health supplies, and the owners of related businesses who may have their own network of Canadian people in need of your services. Below you�ll find a list of ww2 resources that can help you find out more about what goes into getting your home health care business off the ground. 21 st Century Health Care Consultants: A consulting firm that specializes in assisting new home health business ventures in the United States. The website offers plenty of resources to Service Essay, help with questions of licensing, certification, staffing issues, and much more.

Home Care Association of America: The Home Care Association of America (HCAOA) is the on the BMW Group, nation�s first association for providers of private duty home care, which includes non-medical home care services. The HCAOA is the recognized resource for Canadian Service Essay, information and definition of private duty home care practice. The National Association for Home Care Hospice (NAHC): A nonprofit organization that represents the nation�s 33,000 home care and hospice organizations. NAHC also advocates for the more than two million nurses, therapists, aides, and other caregivers employed by define tourist such organizations to provide in-home services to some 12 million Americans each year who are infirm, chronically ill, and disabled. Canadian Home Care Association: As a national association, the CHCA acts mostly as a professional development and political institution. Water! It boasts an A Report on the Essay, extensive resource library which could be helpful to new or prospective business owners. Traditional publishing: One visit to Amazon or your nearest bookstore will give you numerous options for published guides on Canadian Water, starting a home health care business.

Some of the titles you�ll find include: The blog is very useful and has all the information about the topic. Click here to join the containment, conversation ( ) Have something to say about this article? Share it with us on: Bplans is owned and Water operated by Palo Alto Software, Inc., as a free resource to help entrepreneurs start and run better businesses. 1996 - 2017 Palo Alto Software. All Rights Reserved | We're Hiring! Try the #1 business planning software risk-free for 60 days. No contract, no risk. Built for entrepreneurs like you.

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Nov 02, 2017 Canadian Water Service Essay, write my essay for me with professional academic writers -

43 Resume Tips That Will Help You Get Hired. Canadian Service. When you haven�t updated your resume in a while, it can be hard to ww2 know where to start. What experiences and accomplishments should you include for the jobs you�ve got your eye on? What new resume rules and trends should you be following? And seriously, one page or two? Well, search no more: We�ve compiled all the resume advice you need into one place. Read on for tips and tricks that�ll make sure you craft a winning resume�and help you land a job.

Your resume should not have every work experience you�ve ever had listed on it. Think of your resume not as a comprehensive list of your career history, but as a marketing document selling you as the perfect person for Canadian Service Essay the job. On The BMW Group. For each resume you send out, you�ll want to highlight only the accomplishments and skills that are most relevant to the job at hand (even if that means you don�t include all of your experience). Job search expert Lily Zhang explains more about what it means to tailor your resume here . 2. But Keep a Master List of All Jobs. Since you�ll want to Canadian Service Essay be swapping different information in and out depending on define tourist, the job you�re applying to, keep a resume master list on your computer where you keep any information you�ve ever included on a resume: old positions, bullet points tailored for different applications, special projects that only sometimes make sense to include. Canadian Essay. Then, when you�re crafting each resume, it�s just a matter of cutting and pasting relevant information together. Inequality. Think of Water Service Essay this as your brag file . 3. Put the conflict theory Best Stuff �Above the Service Fold� In marketing speak, �above the fold� refers to what you see on the front half of a folded newspaper (or, in containment definition ww2, the digital age, before you scroll down on a website), but basically it�s your first impression of a document. In resume speak, it means you should make sure your best experiences and accomplishments are visible on the top third of Canadian your resume. This top section is what the hiring manager is going to see first�and what will serve as a hook for someone to keep on theory inequality, reading.

So focus on putting your best, most relevant experiences first�and then check out these five other marketing tricks to get your resume noticed . According to Zhang , the Canadian Water Service only occasion when an Shame,, objective section makes sense is when you�re making a huge career change and need to Canadian Water Service Essay explain from the A Report BMW Group Essay get-go why your experience doesn�t match up with the Canadian position you�re applying to. In every other case? Consider whether a summary statement would be right for you �or just nix it altogether to save space and focus on making the rest of your resume stellar. There are lots of different ways to organize the information on virgin rocks, your resume, but the Essay good old reverse chronological (where your most recent experience is listed first) is BMW Group Essay, still your best bet. Canadian Water Service Essay. Unless it�s absolutely necessary in your situation, skip the skills-based resume�hiring managers might wonder what you�re hiding. The two- (or more!) page resume is a hotly debated topic , but the containment bottom line is Canadian Essay, this�you want the information here to be concise, and making yourself keep it to one page is a good way to force yourself to do this. If you truly have enough relevant and containment ww2, important experience, training, and credentials to Canadian Water Service Essay showcase on more than one page of Essay Shame, your resume, then go for it.

But if you can tell the same story in less space? Do. If you�re struggling, check out Canadian Water Essay these tips for cutting your content down , or work with a designer to see how you can organize your resume to the one child fit more in Canadian, less space. Can�t figure out definition how to Canadian Water tell your whole story on containment definition ww2, one page, or want to be able to Essay include some visual examples of your work? Instead of trying to have your resume cover everything, cover the most important details on that document, and then include a link to your personal website , where you can dive more into what makes you the ideal candidate. We�ll talk about define tourist getting creative in order to Water Essay stand out in a minute. But the most basic principle of good resume formatting and containment, design? Keep it simple. Use a basic but modern font, like Helvetica, Arial, or Century Gothic. Make your resume easy on hiring managers� eyes by using a font size between 10 and 12 and leaving a healthy amount of white space on the page.

You can use a different font or typeface for Canadian your name, your resume headers, and the companies for which you�ve worked, but keep it simple and keep it consistent. Your main focus here should be on readability for the hiring manager. That being said, you should feel free to� Really want your resume stand out from the sea of Times New Roman? Yes, creative resumes�like infographics, videos, or presentations�or resumes with icons or graphics can set you apart, but you should use them thoughtfully. If you�re applying through an ATS, keep to the standard formatting without any bells and whistles so the computer can read it effectively.

If you�re applying to a more traditional company, don�t get too crazy, but feel free to add some tasteful design elements or a little color to make it pop. No matter what, don�t do it unless you�re willing to put in the time, creativity, and design work to make it awesome. 10. Make Your Contact Info Prominent. You don�t need to include your address on your resume anymore (really!), but you do need to make sure to include a phone number and the one, professional email address (not your work address!) as well as other places the Service hiring manager can find you on the web, like your LinkedIn profile and Twitter handle. (Implicit in this is that you keep these social media profiles suitable for on the prospective employers.) You�ve heard before that hiring managers don�t spend a lot of time on each individual resume. So help them get as much information as possible, in Service, as little time as possible. These 12 small formatting changes will make a huge difference.

Know that design skills aren�t your strong suit but want your resume to look stunning? There�s no shame in getting help, so consider working with a professional resume designer. This is arguably the most important document of your job search, so it�s worth getting it exactly right! 13. Keep it Recent, Keep it Relevant. As a rule, you should only show the conflict theory gender inequality most recent 10-15 years of your career history and only include the experience relevant to Canadian Water the positions to which you are applying. And remember to virgin of the rocks allocate real estate on your resume according to importance. Canadian Water Essay. If there�s a choice between including one more college internship or going into more detail about define tourist your current role, always choose the latter (unless a previous job was more relevant to the one you�re applying to).

14. No Relevant Experience? No Worries! Don�t panic if you don�t have any experience that fits the Canadian bill. Theory Gender Inequality. Instead, Zhang explains , focus your resume on Essay, your relevant and transferrable skills along with any related side or academic projects, and then make sure to pair it with a strong cover letter telling the narrative of why you�re ideal for the job. No matter how long you�ve been in a job, or how much you�ve accomplished there, you shouldn�t have more than five or six bullets in theory, a given section.

No matter how good your bullets are, the recruiter just isn�t going to get through them. Check out these tips for Canadian Essay writing impressive bullet points . You may be tempted to containment definition ww2 throw in tons of industry jargon so you sound like you know what you�re talking about, but ultimately you want your resume to be understandable to the average person. Remember that the Canadian Water Essay first person who sees your resume might be a recruiter, an assistant, or even a high-level executive�and you want to be sure that it is readable, relevant, and rocks, interesting to all of Water Service them. Use as many facts, figures, and numbers as you can in your bullet points. How many people were impacted by your work? By what percentage did you exceed your goals?

By quantifying your accomplishments, you really allow the containment definition ww2 hiring manager to picture the level of work or responsibility you needed to achieve them. Service Essay. Even if you don�t actually work with numbers, here are some secrets to adding more to your resume . People hire performers, so you want to show that you didn�t just do stuff, but that you got stuff done! As you look at your bullet points, think about how you can take each statement one step further and add in what the Essay on Society, Shame, benefit was to your boss or your company. By doing this, you clearly communicate not only Water Service, what you�re capable of, but also the direct benefit the employer will receive by Shame, and Savagery, hiring you. If you�re not sure how to Canadian Water Service Essay explain your impact, check out these tips for turning your duties into virgin, accomplishments . Describing soft skills on a resume often starts to sound like a list of Canadian meaningless buzzwords, fast. But being a �strong leader� or an child, �effective communicator� are important characteristics you want to get across. Water Essay. Think about how you can demonstrate these attributes in your bullet points without actually saying them. Zhang demonstrates here how you can show five different qualities with the same bullet point�try it yourself until you get the result you�re going for! 20. Don�t Neglect Non-Traditional Work. There�s no law that says you can only conflict theory gender inequality, put full-time or paid work on Canadian Water Essay, your resume.

So, if you�ve participated in a major volunteer role, worked part-time, were hired as a temporary or contract worker , freelanced, or blogged? Absolutely list these things as their own �jobs� within your career chronology. If every bullet in your resume starts with �Responsible for,� readers will get bored very quickly. Definition Ww2. Use our handy list of better verbs to mix it up ! Use keywords in your resume: Scan the job description, see what words are used most often, and Essay, make sure you�ve included them in child policy in china, your bullet points. Not only is this a self-check that you�re targeting your resume to the job, it�ll make sure you get noticed in Canadian Water Essay, applicant tracking systems. Stuck on which words to include? Dump the job description into a tool like TagCrowd , which will analyze and spit out the most used keywords. What words shouldn�t you include?

Detail-oriented, team player, and define tourist, hard worker�among other vague terms that recruiters say are chronically overused . We bet there�s a better way to describe how awesome you are. 24. Experience First, Education Second. Unless you�re a recent graduate, put your education after your experience. Chances are, your last couple of jobs are more important and relevant to you getting the job than where you went to college. 25. Also Keep it Reverse Chronological. Usually, you should lay down your educational background by listing the most recent or advanced degree first, working in reverse chronological order. Canadian Service Essay. But if older coursework is more specific to the job, list that first to grab the child policy reviewer�s attention. Service. Don�t list your graduation dates.

The reviewer cares more about whether or not you have the conflict gender degree than when you earned it. If you graduated from Canadian college with high honors, absolutely make note of it. While you don�t need to list your GPA, don�t be afraid to showcase that summa cum laude status or the fact that you were in the honors college at your university. 28. Include Continuing or Online Education. Don�t be afraid to include continuing education, professional development coursework, or online courses in your education section, especially if it feels a little light. Kelli Orrela explains , �Online courses are a more-than-accepted norm nowadays, and your participation in them can actually show your determination and motivation to on the Essay get the Water skills you need for your career.� Be sure to add a section that lists out all the relevant skills you have for a position, including tech skills like HTML and child policy, Adobe Creative Suite and any industry-related certifications. Just make sure to skip including skills that everyone is expected to have, like using email or Microsoft Word. Doing so will actually make you seem less technologically savvy. If you have lots of skills related to a position�say, foreign language, software, and leadership skills�try breaking out one of those sections and listing it on its own. Below your �Skills� section, add another section titled �Language Skills� or �Software Skills,� and detail your experience there.

Again�we�re going for skimmability here, folks! Feel free to include an �Interests� section on your resume, but only add those that are relevant to the job. Are you a guitar player with your eye on a music company? Definitely include it. But including your scrapbooking hobby for a tech job at Canadian Water Service Essay, a healthcare company? Don�t even think about it. 32.

Beware of Interests That Could Be Controversial. Maybe you help raise money for your church on ww2, the reg. Or perhaps you have a penchant for canvassing during political campaigns. Yes, these experiences show a good amount of work ethic�but they could also be discriminated against by Canadian Water Service Essay, someone who disagrees with the cause. Zhang explains here how to weigh the decision of whether to Essay include them or not. Do include awards and accolades you�ve received, even if they�re company-specific awards. Water Essay. Just state what you earned them for, e.g., �Earned Gold Award for having the company�s top sales record four quarters in a row.� What about personal achievements�like running a marathon�that aren�t totally relevant but show you�re a driven, hard worker? Zhang shares the define tourist proper ways to include them.

Gaps and Other Sticky Resume Situations. If you stayed at a (non-temporary) job for only a matter of months, consider eliminating it from your resume. According to Water Service The New York Times � career coach , leaving a particularly short-lived job or two off your work history shouldn�t hurt, as long as you�re honest about on the Essay your experience if asked in an interview. Service. If you have gaps of a few months in define tourist, your work history, don�t list the usual start and end dates for each position. Use years only (2010-2012), or just the number of years or months you worked at your earlier positions. If you�ve job-hopped frequently, include a reason for leaving next to each position, with a succinct explanation like �company closed,� �layoff due to downsizing,� or �relocated to new city.� By addressing the Water gaps, you�ll proactively illustrate the reason for your sporadic job movement and make it less of an issue. Re-entering the conflict theory gender inequality workforce after a long hiatus? This is the perfect opportunity for Canadian a summary statement at the top, outlining your best skills and accomplishments.

Then, get into your career chronology, without hesitating to include part-time or volunteer work. See more tips from Jenny Foss for killing it on your comeback resume. Don�t try to creatively fill in gaps on your resume. For example, if you took time out of the workforce to raise kids, don�t list your parenting experience on your resume, a la �adeptly managed the BMW Group growing pile of laundry� (we�ve seen it). While parenting is as demanding and intense a job as any out there, most corporate decision makers aren�t going to take this section of your resume seriously. 39. Ditch �References Available Upon Request� If a hiring manager is interested in you, he or she will ask you for references�and will assume that you have them.

There�s no need to address the obvious (and doing so might even make you look a little presumptuous!). It should go without saying, but make sure your resume is free and Canadian Water, clear of typos. And Savagery. And don�t rely on Water Service, spell check and grammar check alone�ask family or friends to take a look at it for you (or get some tips from an editor on conflict inequality, how to perfect your own work ). If emailing your resume, make sure to always send a PDF rather than a .doc. That way all of your careful formatting won�t accidentally get messed up when the hiring manager opens it on Canadian, his or her computer. To make sure it won�t look wonky when you send it off, Google�s head of HR Laszlo Bock suggests, �Look at it in Essay, both Google Docs and Essay, Word, and A Report on the Essay, then attach it to Water an email and open it as a preview.� Ready to define tourist save your resume and Canadian Service Essay, send it off? Save it as �Jane Smith Resume� instead of �Resume.� It�s one less step the hiring manager has to take. Carve out conflict gender some time every quarter or so to pull up your resume and make some updates. Have you taken on Essay, new responsibilities? Learned new skills?

Add them in. When your resume is updated on a regular basis, you�re ready to pounce when opportunity presents itself. And, even if you�re not job searching, there are plenty of good reasons to keep this document in tip-top shape. Photo courtesy of Hero Images / Getty Images . Containment. Erin Greenawald is Water Service Essay, a freelance writer, editor, and content strategist who is passionate about elevating the standard of gender inequality writing on the web. Erin previously helped build The Muse�s beloved daily publication and led the Water company�s branded content team. If you�re an individual or company looking for containment ww2 help making your content better�or you just want to go out to tea�get in touch at eringreenawald.com. Hmmm, seems you#39;ve already signed up for this class.

While you#39;re here, you may as well check out all the amazing companies that are hiring like crazy right now.

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essay period cheat frequency, methods, and causes. Mikaela Bj?rklund and Claes-G?ran Wenestam. ?bo Akademi University. Department of Water, Teacher Education, email: Mikaela.Bjorklund@abo.fi or cwenestam@abo.fi. Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, Lahti, Finland 22-25 September 1999. During the past decades cheating among undergraduate students has been a well-known problem difficult to gain knowledge of.

European research in this field of research is scarce. The aim of this paper is to present a study, investigating the frequency of cheating, the cheating methods used and the students#146; motives for cheating or not cheating in a Swedish-Finnish university context. Comparisons with other higher education contexts were possible since an anonymous questionnaire, worked out and used by Newstead, Franklyn-Stokes and Armstead (1995), was translated into conflict theory Swedish and used in the study. The participants were three groups of university students (n=160) from different academic disciplines. The findings implicate that cheating among undergraduates is common and mainly is a problem of Water Service Essay, ethic character. The paper also discusses consequences of student cheating for define tourist, the university staff, legislators, and society. Service? Suggestions on what measures should be applied are presented along with suggestions for further research in this area. During the conflict gender inequality, past decade, problems concerning cheating among undergraduate students have become increasingly apparent in academic institutions in the Nordic countries. Cheating or academic misconduct is, however, not a new phenomenon, but a well-known problem in many European countries, as well as in the United States of America. Because of the ethical and moral character of the problem it is not easy to do research in this field. Obvious problems are i.e. student integrity.

Thus, academic dishonest behaviour and cheating is a familiar problem for any university, but it is often not very well known and sometimes the university authorities do not even want to Service, know of it. And Savagery? Keith-Spiegel (in Murray, 1996) shows that among a sample of almost 500 university professors 20 percent reported they had ignored to take further measures in evident cases of cheating. Many university teachers obviously hesitate to take action against cheating behaviour because of the stress and discomfort that follows (Murray, 1996). Also Maramark and Maline (1993) suggest that faculty often choose not to involve university or departmental authorities but handle observed cheating on an individual level, making it invisible in university documents and, thus, unknown to the university authorities. Also other findings support the reluctance to bring dishonest academic behaviour like cheating before the university administration.

Jendreck (1992), as an example, concludes that students preferred to Essay, handle the define tourist, problem informally rather than by using formal university policy. Probably at least partly because of the reasons mentioned above European research in this field is still scarce (cf. Newstead, Franklyn-Stokes Armstead, 1995 and Ashworth et al., 1997). Nevertheless, we feel that it is of the utmost importance that this area of research is further developed in the near future, not the least since students tend to see cheating as a more or less normal part of their studies, which is Water illustrated in the quote below: Students beliefs that everyone cheats (Houston, 1976, p. Define Tourist? 301) or that cheating is a normal part of life (Baird, 1980) encourage cheating.

The adage cheaters never win may not apply in the case of academic dishonesty. With cheating rates as high as 75% to 87% (e.g., Baird, 1980; Jendreck, 1989) and detection rates as low as 1.30% (Haines et al., 1986), academic dishonesty is reinforced, not punished. Canadian? (Davis, Grover, Becker McGregor, 1992, p. Define Tourist? 17) With detection rates as low as 1,3 % it is Essay hardly surprising that students to a great extent perceive academic misconduct as worth while and even approved of. As an illustration of the low detection rates; during a five year period (1991-1995) only 24 students were brought to the disciplinary board for cheating at one Swedish university (Grahnstr?m, 1996). It is, hence, of importance to virgin of the, university staff and administrators, as well as to legislators and society as a whole to gain insight in this matter, in order to be able to do something about it. The aim of the Service, study. The main aim of the study presented in this paper is to provide a first step in a survey over university students#146; cheating, i.e. to investigate the overall frequency, different methods and main reasons for define tourist, cheating and not cheating among students in a Finnish context. The study is intended as a starting point for further in-depth research in this area. In order to get a better understanding of the problem, the aim is also to Canadian Water Essay, relate the outcome to subjects#146; backgrounds in terms of sex, age, academic experience (number of study years), faculty belongings, level of conflict, difficulty, level of study success and main reason for study at the university, in Canadian Essay order to get a deeper understanding of student cheating behaviour.

To make comparisons with other contexts possible an anonymous questionnaire, worked out and used by the British researchers Newstead , Franklyn-Stoked and Armstead (1995), was translated into Swedish and theory gender, used in the study, which was carried out on Water Service 160 university students during the spring of on Society,, 1996. I this presentation we focus attention on: a) the frequency of admitted cheating, b) what kinds of cheating is most frequent in relation to the British results, b) the relationship between frequency of Essay, admitted cheating/not admitted cheating and A Report Essay, sex, c) the reasons selected for Canadian Water Essay, or against cheating in relation to child, the British results, and. d) the relationship between the reasons selected and Water Essay, sex. It is very human to in china, try to find ways to solve problems as easy as possible or to Essay, avoid unnecessary difficulties. Sometimes a creative mood is not only wanted but also morally supported, but in define tourist other situations it is considered as dishonest and shameful. In higher education this kind of creativity may be in conflict with study performance and productivity and may turn out to be viewed upon with disapproval or contempt. How define cheating? Plagiarism related to the exam situation is Water Essay what is the one child policy usually referred to when generally talking about cheating. It is also this kind of behaviour that has received most attention in research on Water cheating.

Defining cheating is, however, much more complicated than that, since cheating seems to involve both a moral and an achievement dimension, which is define tourist graphically illustrated in Figure 1 below. Figure 1. Canadian Water Service Essay? Graphic presentation of the rocks, problematic grey-zone between moral and immoral behaviour. The levels in Canadian Water Service Essay the achievement dimension are not absolute, but dependent on the perspective of the viewer. Theory Inequality? The area between the dashed lines symbolises the grey-zone that exists concerning the classification of potential cheating behaviours. Definitions of cheating also vary as a result of variation in moral development, experiences of studies, influence of significant others, studying strategy (cf. Miller Parlett, 1973) and probably also other factors. The result is a wide spectrum of definitions ranging from Water Service Essay, liberal to conservative. Hence, the need for normative documents is apparent. Evenso they do not seem to theory gender, exist, at least not in Canadian Water Finland. Nowhere in child policy in china the legislation concerning exams and cheating is it mentioned what kind of behaviours constitutes cheating. The examples above illustrate what a complex problem cheating is.

In the study presented in this paper all not strictly correct behaviours were classified as cheating for clarity#146;s sake. To what extent does cheating occur? Most of the research done concerning the amount of Water, cheating occurring, has, as mentioned earlier, been carried out in BMW Group Essay the USA. The quotation below provides examples of the cheating-rates measured in different studies in a North American context. The reader ought to observe that these studies were different in design; concentrated on different behaviours and therefore some of the variation in the percentages might be accounted for in that way, and thus can not only be taken to convey a steadily increasing rate of cheating. Drake (1941) reported a cheating rate of 23%, whereas Goldsen, Rosenberg, William, and Suchman (1960) reported rates of 38% and 49% for 1952 and 1960, respectively. Hetherington and Feldman (1964) and Canadian Service, Baird (1980) reported cheating rates of 64% and 76%, respectively. Jendreck (1989) placed the conflict gender inequality, typical rate between 40% and 60% but noted other rates as high as 82% (Stern Havlicek, 1986) and Water, 88% (Sierles, Hendrickx, Circle, 1980). (Davis et al., 1992,s.16) Davis et al. (1992), pointing at containment the results presented above, regard cheating as epidemic.

There are indications that give some, but not very much, support to the epidemic theory. McCabe and Trevino (1996) found that the tendency to cheat had increased only little, from 63 percent in 1963 to Canadian Water Service, 70 percent in definition ww2 1990-91 but that the cheating methods had been more developed and the repertoire wider. Their findings may also be interpreted to Canadian Service, mean that students who cheat are doing it more often than previous generations of students. Three studies cited by Maramark and Maline (1993) suggest that cheating is a constant study technique among large groups of students (60-75 percent). Also Davis and Ludvigson (1995) found in of the a more recent study that the individuals who cheat during their university-level studies are the ones that also have cheated earlier in their studies. In a study by Baldwin, et al (1996), where 2459 medical students participated as subjects, 39 percent said they had witnessed cheating, 66,5 percent had heard about cheating, and Water Essay, 5 percent had cheated during their medical studies. Graham et al (1994) found that among 480 college students 89 percent admitted cheating and in conflict theory gender a study by Lord and Chiodo (1995) 83 percent of the undergraduates investigated (n=300) admitted to Water, cheating on significant tests and major projects. In a European context Newstead et al. (1995) also present high rates of cheating. In their study only 12% of the define tourist, respondents claimed that they had not cheated. All the above mentioned figures are concerned with the number of cheaters, i.e. the Canadian Water Essay, number of students who have at least on containment definition one occasion been involved in academic misconduct, they do not tell us anything about to Canadian Water Service, what extent these people do cheat.

It is, however, likely that the more cheating is define tourist done, the more probable it is that the Water Service Essay, numbers of behaviours used vary. It is therefore of importance to find out what kind of behaviours students utilise. What methods are used? There are four major kinds of theory, groups to be distinguished when classifying cheating behaviours, namely: Individual opportunistic, individual planned, active social and passive social (Hetherington Feldman, 1964). Baird (1980) on the other hand distinguishes only between individual and co-operative behaviours. The findings of Franklyn-Stokes Newstead (1995) point to extensive cheating in some areas like copying each others work, changing or inventing research data, while some other cheating behaviour like lying or changing persons at examination (impersonation) was fairly scarce (see Table 5). Hence, there seems to be a correlation between level of perceived seriousness of the behaviour and its frequency of occurrence #150; the more serious the behaviour, the less frequent it is. Students tend to Service, classify exam-related cheating as more serious than course-related cheating.

These classifications were also confirmed by Newstead et al#146;s results, where all exam-related items were among the least frequent and course-related items among the most frequent. McCabe and Trevino summarise their findings in a table showing what kind of cheating and the frequency students admit they are engaged in. The modified table (below) shows the level of admitted cheating in definition ww2 1963 and 1993. The two tests make a comparison possible. Table. 2. Water? Kind of admitted student cheating in 1963 and 1993 (%) (McCabe and BMW Group, Trevino, 1996). Copied material without footnoting. Table 2 shows that some kinds of cheating are more frequent than other kinds. It is Water Essay also interesting to containment definition, find that in Canadian most of the cases the tendency is an increase of the cheating between 1963 and 1993. This does not necessarily mean, however, that the students were cheating more in 1993 than they did in 1963.

Another reasonable explanation is that the students were more prone to admit cheating in 1993 than the students were in of the rocks 1963. These results are similar to findings in other studies but there are also findings suggesting cultural differences. Canadian Service Essay? Kuehn, Stanwyck, and Holland , for instance, asked students from Mexican, Arabic and containment definition, US cultural backgrounds about cheating. The main focus was on three typical cheating behaviours: using crib notes, copying another student#146;s test, and allowing another student to copy course work. The findings suggest that there were differences between the Service, culturally different groups of students in on Society, how they looked upon and rated cheating. Also new technique, like the Canadian Service Essay, World Wide Web, is used by students in containment definition ww2 order to download papers, essays, etc produced by other students but presented to the examiner as own work. One illustration of this is a report from a Swedish university, where several students were found out using not accepted means for getting course credits among which the Canadian, downloading of ready-made course works from the web was mentioned (Lunds Universitet Meddelar, 1998). Considering the variety of methods used in the one policy cheating, as described above, it is probable that also the reasons given for cheating are many. Reasons for cheating and not doing it. The reasons or motives for cheating are not very well known but must be assumed to be complex.

In a North American study of school students cheating by Service, Anderman, Griesinger, and Westerfield (1998) it is claimed that the schools#146; obsession with performance measures spurs cheating. It is suggested that classrooms that emphasise high grades and test scores may drive the students to cheat . Similar conclusions are reported from conflict theory inequality, several investigations, where the students#146; workload is found to be an important explaining factor (Lipson MacGavern, 1993). Davis et al (1992) point out that pressures for good grades in higher education, student stress, ineffective deterrents, teacher attitudes, and an increasing lack of academic integrity are important determinants of cheating. Baird (1980) previously reported similar findings. In that study 35 percent of the students stated that they had too little time for studying for the exam and 26 percent of the students said their working load made it necessary to cheat. In a study by Singhal (1982) as much as 68 percent of the students regarded the wish to get good results as the reason for cheating. Newstead, Franklyn-Stokes, and Armstead (1995) found that 21 percent of the cheaters say it was lack of time to study that made them cheat and 20 percent explicitly stated that their cheating was a consequence of their wish to get better grades. A third frequently occurring reason for cheating was everybody else does it (16%), which effectively reflects students#146; attitudes towards cheating.

This reason was followed by Canadian Water Service, the wish to help a friend (14%) and laziness (10%), which also says quite a lot about the risks of getting caught. It is obviously easier to help a friend cheat than to e.g. help the friend learn to an exam. Also Maramark and Maline (1993), when looking for policy in china, causes for cheating, found that stress, competition for jobs, scholarships and Canadian Essay, admission to post-graduate programs were important determinants. On a general level the causes or explanations identified can be organised in two classes of factors, external, and individual/personal. In Table 1 below the virgin of the rocks, two super-ordinate factors and some elements/reasons mentioned in research done by Service, Baird (1980), Davis et al (1992) and Hetherington Feldman (1964) are presented. Table 1. Presentation of factors that might lead to cheating mentioned by Baird (1980), Davis et al. (1992) and Hetherington Feldman (1964). Importance of the Essay, test. Level of test-difficulty. Awareness of the.

performance of fellow. A certain expectation of. Overcrowded, great classes. Wish to help a friend. Aversion to teacher. At a closer examination of the reasons mentioned by these researchers it seems obvious that the strongest reasons are to be found among the personal factors and that the external factors merely help to Canadian Water, ease the theory gender, cheating. The external factors are furthermore a welcome excuse for the students, since they appear to prefer blaming external factors for their behaviour (Baird, 1980).

Anderman et al (1998) identified two general types of study approaches, which on Canadian Water a general level seem to be similar to the deep and surface approaches to containment definition ww2, studying and learning. The cheaters tend to believe that the purpose of school is to compete and show how smart you are. Also, to them, what is most important, is Water Service doing better than others and child policy in china, getting the right answer. They also worried about school and made use of self-handicapping behaviours, blaming others and making excuses for not performing well at school, more often than their counterparts. Many of them believed cheating would result in less homework and fewer academic demands. The non-cheating group of students, in Essay comparison, expressed interest in their learning of science concepts and tried various problem-solving methods and sought to connect ideas. In several previous studies it is suggested that the effect of an ww2 explicit and unanimously accepted honour code will lower the frequency of cheating behaviour (McCabe Bowers, 1994). But honour code may have an effect in two opposite Water Essay, directions. A very common reason for some types of cheating is the wish to help a friend (Franklyn-Stokes and Newstead, 1995; McCabe Trevino, 1996).

To many students some behaviours are not viewed as cheating although forbidden by the university or staff. For instance, letting a fellow student borrow or copy an individual course work or a written assignment or even have a look at the answer in a test may be regarded as honest and correct behaviour. Thus, some cheating behaviours may be explained by the honour code prevalent among the students. The most frequent reasons for not cheating were, in the study made by on the BMW Group Essay, Franklyn-Stokes and Newstead (1995) that it is immoral/dishonest and that it is Canadian Essay useless/unimportant. The One Child In China? In their study these were the most frequent reasons for Water, not indulging in academic misconduct regardless of sex and age. In later studies (Newstead et al, 1995) there were, however, significant differences between the age groups: the on Society, and Savagery, older students gave the Canadian Water Service, reason immoral more often than their younger peers did. The 160 subjects participating in the study were recruited from three different groups of students. In Table 3 below, the samples and some characteristics are presented. Table 3. The One In China? Participants in the study. The collection of data was carried out at the university during ordinary lecture time. The students were asked to complete a questionnaire consisting of questions about cheating behaviours.

The questionnaire was originally developed by Franklyn -Stokes and Newstead in Water Essay the U.K. but adapted to meet the needs of the Swedish-speaking environment in Finland. In their questionnaire a set of probable cheating behaviours (A-U) were presented to containment definition, the student, who was asked to tell (Yes or No) if he/she had carried out that behaviour at Canadian Service least once. Two additional items were included in the questionnaire totalling the number of cheating behaviours presented to 23. Accompanying each question about cheating was a list of arguments (reasons) motivating or explaining the behaviour and a list of arguments giving reasons for not cheating. Definition? The subjects were asked to Canadian Water Service, select one reason for each Yes/No response. There was also a few additional questions asking about their reason to study at the university, their judgement of their study successfulness and about their belief about fellow students cheating. The questionnaire was distributed to the students during ordinary lecture time at the university. The respondents completed it immediately and anonymously. It took about definition 15 minutes to complete. Canadian Service? The data was analysed by quantitative methods.

4. The result of the data analysis. The overall frequency of cheating. 75 % of the respondents in this study had engaged in at least one of the A Report, behaviours listed in the questionnaire. However, only 63,5 % of them admit to cheating in the overall question at the end of the questionnaire, even though no less than 91,9% report that they believe their fellow students cheat. Canadian Water Essay? The over all tendency to cheat only correlated with year of study (Spearman#146;s rho= ,160, P=.046), reason to study (Spearman#146;s rho= ,213, p=.012) and the respondents#146; estimation of how much other students cheat (Spearman#146;s rho= ,159, p=.046). This seems to imply that the over all amount of cheating is relatively stable, but that the define tourist, methods used vary depending on discipline of study, gender, age and success in studies, since there are some significant correlations for the individual items on the basis of these background variables. This study was not designed to study the moral development of the respondents, but the results do, however, point in one certain direction as far as moral is concerned. In Table 4 below, the reported tendency to cheat is cross-tabulated with respondents#146; own evaluation of their inclination to cheat. Table 4. Essay? Cross-tabulation of the variables reported tendency to cheat and own evaluation of cheating inclination. Of the ones who have reported that they never cheat 53,4 % have admitted to exercising at least one of the behaviours mentioned in the questionnaire, whereas 12,9 % of the ones of the opinion that they cheat rarely have not reported cheating on any of the define tourist, behaviours.

A considerable amount of the students do seem to cheat, even though they do not always consider what they do as wrong, which makes it interesting to study how they do it and which behaviours are the most commonly used ones. Cheating methods used. In this section the occurrence of the Canadian Essay, different methods listed in containment definition the questionnaire are presented. Observe that the behaviours listed in the questionnaire are various behaviours that can be regarded as cheating and Service Essay, dishonest behaviour, but do not necessarily need to be considered as such (cf. the definition of cheating used in this paper). Below, in on Society, Table 5 the Canadian Essay, students#146; responses to the behaviours described in on Society, Shame, the questionnaire are presented in order of frequency. The table also includes a classification of the behaviours as social/individual, and course-/exam-/research related, as well as the British results (Frankyn-Stokes Newstead, 1995). Table 5. The cheating behaviours listed in order of frequency.

The percentage of yes-answers to each cheating behaviour listed in order of frequency, starting with the most frequently used. Canadian Water? The figure to the right is the percentage of positive answers received for the same item in containment ww2 the study made by Franklyn-Stokes Newstead (1995).The letters to the left represent the classification of the behaviour. The letters stand for research (R), coursework (C), exam (E), and individual (I), social (S) and altruistic (A). In Table 5 one can see that some cheating behaviours are more frequent than others are. Canadian Service Essay? The most frequent ones among the Finnish respondents are Copying material for course-work from a book or other publication without acknowledging the source, Paraphrasing material from another source without acknowledging the original author, Allowing own course-work to be copied by another student, and Copying another student's course-work with their knowledge.

These behaviours are admitted by more than 20 percent of the participating students. As mentioned earlier, these behaviours may be considered as academic misconduct. All of of the, them may, however, be viewed as acceptable and Water Service, even morally correct among the containment, students, since they do not have negative consequences for the fellow student but may be regarded as help and Canadian Service, support in containment difficult situations. In that sense it can be assumed that there exists a conflict between staff#146;s and students#146; social and ethical value systems, creating a moral borderline area where what is right and Canadian Water Service, wrong are not easily delimited. From the bottom of the list we can observe that the least admitted behaviours are Inventing data (i.e. entering non-existent results into the database)and Kept silent about a teacher's misbehaviour or misuse of his/her position in order to get approval on a test or a higher mark. These behaviours were reported only by one respondent/ behaviour. The general nature of these behaviours seems to define tourist, be different from the most frequent ones in that they are more directed to personal gratification. The behaviours also represent more active deception of teachers and fellow students in Water Service Essay order to gain personal reward. It can be assumed that these behaviours are viewed as more morally disapprovable and of low peer esteem. As also can be seen above, three of the behaviours do not occur at all in this study.

This is probably due to define tourist, the limited sample and perhaps also (judging from Canadian Service Essay, cryptic comments of the respondents) to fear of punishment. The students#146; responses to the items in the questionnaire depicting various cheating behaviours were in most cases similar for the both sexes; that is, there are almost no differences between female and male student#146;s responses in this respect. To two items, however, there were different reactions that are related to differences in sex. One of these items was Taking unauthorised material into Essay on Society, Shame, and Savagery an examination (e.g. Service? #146;cribs#146;). The outcome is presented in Table 6 below. Table 6 Relationship between students#146; responses to item Taking unauthorised material into an examination (e.g. #146;cribs#146;) and students#146; sex. The result in the table indicates that there are clear differences between female and male students#146; ways of responding to the item suggesting cheating in the form of taking unauthorised material in the testing situation. Among the female students only 2.6 percent admitted to the behaviour while 13.6 percent of the male students said #146;Yes#146; to having carried out the cheating. The differences are statistically significant (Fisher#146;s Exact Test, D.F.=1, p=.015). The second item where there were observed statistically significant ( c 2 =5.82, D.F.=1, p=.016) response differences related to sex was the item Signing as present a not present fellow student at a course where obligatory attendance is asked for. This item was added to the original questionnaire.

The outcome is presented in conflict theory Table 7 below. Table 7. Relationship between students#146; responses to the item Signing as present a not present fellow student at a course where obligatory attendance is asked for and students#146; sex. As can be seen in the table more than 20 percent of the female students admitted that they had signed on a fellow student at a lecture although he/she was absent. This can be compared with 4.5 percent of the male students admitting the same behaviour. Compared to the outcome in the previous table, there is a clear female dominance for this behaviour, while males more often than females answered Yes to the previous one. Another difference is that the total proportion of Yes-responses are much larger for the item Signing as present a not present fellow student at Service a course, where obligatory attendance is asked for when compared with students#146; Yes-responses to the item Taking unauthorised material into rocks an examination (e.g. #146;cribs#146;) (se Table 6 above), showing the response variation between the items regarding the tendency among the students to accept or not accept a specific cheating behaviour. The social #150;individual relation. In the following, the frequency of Canadian Service Essay, certain cheating behaviours are discussed in relation to the nature (see classification in Table 5 above) of the behaviour.

14 of the behaviours in this study were clearly classified as individual and 5 as social. The mean for yes-responses was 14,4 % for the social behaviours and 10,5 % for of the rocks, the individual ones. As for situation relatedness, the Essay, five most frequently used behaviours were clearly course related. The study only contained one item concerning research related cheating (R), and this was the ninth in order of frequency (10,8 %) and had mostly been used by male respondents at definition the age of 21-23 successfully (16-24.99 credits/term) studying education . Canadian Water Service Essay? Exam related cheating was not among the most commonly used cheating methods, but 13,8 % of the respondents still admit using the most frequent of these behaviours. The clearly altruistic behaviours A and S were used to a greater extent by female respondents (A: 27,4 % and S: 8,8 %) than by A Report on the BMW Group Essay, men (A: 16,7 % and S: 2,3 %, even though the reasons given for exercising this behaviour are not clearly altruistic. Reasons for cheating. Another area of interest to Water Essay, us concerns the on the BMW Group Essay, reasons and the arguments selected as explanations and sometimes also as excuses for the behaviour. In Table 8 below all the reasons used to motivate cheating are listed in order of frequency. It should be remembered that the reasons available to be selected were generated by the researchers, but that the Essay, respondents also were given the possibility to express other reasons/motives. These less frequent reasons are also listed in Table 8.

Regarding reasons given for not cheating the most frequent one (27.5 %) is the choice stating that cheating is immoral or dishonest. The reasons following in frequency of appearance represent on a general level a completely different class of attitudes, since it may mean that the on the BMW Group Essay, subject do not distance him/herself from cheating, only that it was not considered or regarded as useful (I never thought of it, 21.3 % and Situation did not arise, 19.5 %). In the lower frequency range two reasons mirroring fear of detection and getting caught are found; Shame/embarrassment at being caught (1.3 %) and Fear of detection/punishment (1.4 %). In a way these reasons like the Water Essay, two previous ones are focusing the social condemnation for cheating and dishonest behaviour and are not clearly a statement against cheating. When looking at students#146; ways of define tourist, choosing reasons for cheating or for Canadian Water, not cheating there seems to exist a strong connection with the cheating behaviour that is in focus. This means that the choice of reason is to a large extent dependent on the particular behaviour that have been admitted to child policy, or not admitted to.

This topic will be discussed no further in this paper. In most cases, however, there are no obvious differences between female and male students#146; ways of selecting their reasons for their responses. Depending on what cheating behaviour is to be decided on, female and male students mostly make similar choices of arguments for Service, their behaviour. In two cases, however, there exist statistical significant differences between the two sexes in ways of explaining the child policy in china, behaviour. The reasons chosen as an explanation or an argument for or against the behaviour Taking unauthorised material into an examination (e.g. 'cribs') are different between female and male students. In the Canadian Water Service, table below the gender inequality, outcome is presented.

Table 10. Reasons for or against the cheating behaviour Taking unauthorised material into an examination (e.g. 'cribs')among female and male students. The outcome points to statistical significant differences (Phi and Cram?r#146;s V =.404, p=.048) between the female and male ways of selecting the reason for their behaviour regarding Taking unauthorised material into an examination (e.g. 'cribs'). Service Essay? First of all 7.1 percent of the boys have selected Fear of failure as a reason for this cheating behaviour while no girl have selected that reason. Also It would be unfair to other students were chosen by 4.8 male students but not one female student. Among the female students reasons like To increase the child in china, mark, Laziness, I would not know how to go about it and Situation did not arise/not applicable to my course were chosen by a few female students but no male student. A relatively large difference between female and male ways of choosing among the reasons for Essay, explaining the Yes/No-answer can be found for reason I never thought about it, where 20.5 percent of the female students selected that reason while it attracted only 14.3 percent of the male students. Also It would devalue my achievement was chosen by a larger proportion female students (8.0 %) than male students (2.4 %). The second statistical significant difference (Phi and Cram?r#146;s V=.348, p=.028) concerns the reasons chosen for item Taking an examination for someone else or having someone else take an examination for virgin of the, you. The outcome is presented in Table 11 below. Table 11.

Reasons for or against the cheating behaviour Taking an examination for someone else or having someone else take an examination for you. among female and male students. In one case the male students have chosen a reason (Shame/embarrassment at being caught) that is not chosen by any female student. Large difference on the basis of sex are found for Water Essay, the reason Situation did not arise/not applicable to my course, where more than 16 percent more boys have chosen that reasons for their behaviour. Two female students selected one reason that the male students did not choose, namely Fear of detection/punishment. Theory? Largest difference (18.7 percent) to the male students are found for reason I never thought of it, which was chosen by 33.0 percent of the female students but only 14.3 percent of the male students. Various methodological problems that have been discussed elsewhere (see Bj?rklund, 1997), are not mentioned here, since they do not seem to affect the reliability and validity of the results discussed. There is, however, one point of importance as far as methodological bias is concerned and that is the fact that the instrument in this study was translated from Essay, English and a British context, which in containment ww2 some cases have called for Canadian Water, adjustment and in one case yielded an erroneous translation (item L). The frequency of individual cheating behaviours in comparison to the British results. The over all frequency of cheating reported in this study does not differ significantly from the ones reported by on the BMW Group Essay, previous researchers, and can, hence, be taken as a further proof of the fact that the over all cheating rates seem to be fairly constant in the western word. What is more interesting is the variation in frequency on Canadian Service Essay individual behaviours.

The most outstanding feature when comparing the frequencies reported by the Finnish respondents with the ones reported by the British, is that in most cases the British respondents have reported remarkably higher degree of cheating. The greatest variation is to be found in items I (peer assessment), L (inventing data) , R (altering data) and A (allow copying of coursework). The great difference concerning peer assessment is conflict gender inequality probably due to differences in the academic traditions: Peer assessment is not very common in the Swedish #150;speaking university level studies in Water Service Finland. Item L does not represent a real difference, since the item was erroneously translated into Swedish and , thus, measures something else. Research related cheating seem to be much more common in definition Britain, but the result might in this case be biased for faculty, since the studies were not conducted at the same kinds of institutions. Item A, concerning course work, is the top one of Essay, many items concerning coursework that exhibit considerable higher frequencies for the British respondents, which is probably due to the same kind/s of cultural differences as mentioned regarding item I. Only on item K (advance information about exam) was the result of the Finnish respondents higher than the result of the British. The items concerning examrelated behaviours generally exhibit the smallest differences between the ww2, groups, which seems to indicate that exam conditions are more or less alike between the two countries. Water Essay? It is also possible to A Report on the BMW Group, claim that the results indicate that Finnish students seem to find examrelated cheating less serious than British, who , in turn, do not seem to regard research related cheating as particularly serious. In the Finnish results the Canadian, social behaviours seem to containment definition ww2, be slightly more common, whereas the individual behaviours get a higher mean score in the British results (social 24 %, individual 20,8 %). This can be seen claimed to Canadian Service Essay, indicate that the British academic environment is more competitive than the Finnish, but it ought to be remembered that the mean score used here is a very crude measure.

Reasons for cheating in comparison to the British results. The most frequent reasons for the one policy in china, cheating mentioned by the Finnish students were time pressure, laziness and Water, the wish to help a friend. The wish to help a friend and time pressure are also two of the three most frequent reasons mentioned by the one child policy, the British students, but they have mentioned the wish to Canadian Service Essay, increase the define tourist, mark as the most frequent reason for cheating. Concerning this reason the difference between the two samples is Canadian Water remarkable (Finnish students 9,3 % and British students 33,3 %). Finns on gender inequality the other hand contribute their cheating to laziness and extenuating circumstances considerably more often than their British peers, who, in turn, seem to fear failure more and also tend to Canadian Service, justify their behaviour with the reason everybody does it. Out of these differences it is easy to create caricature image of the cheating British student as an ambitious person , who wishes to perform well and of the containment ww2, Finnish student who mainly cheats because it seems to be the easiest way to go about the studies. Considering the reasons for not cheating the British students seem to have two main reasons, which are used considerably more often than the Service Essay, other ones available; That it would have been pointless/unnecessary and that it would have been immoral/dishonest. The immorality aspect is mentioned as the virgin, most frequently used among the Finnish students, but the second most frequently used is that the student never thought of it, closely followed by the reason that the situation didn#146;t arise or wasn#146;t applicable. Again, then , the British students seem to be more focused on the outcome/the result of the Water Service, cheating behaviour than the Finnish ones.

Even though morality is one of the most frequently used reasons for not cheating in both of the groups, the BMW Group, potential cheater-reasons, i.e. the ones giving I never thought of it, the situation didn#146;t arise and/or it was unnecessary/pointless, amount to Canadian Water, about 50 % in define tourist both of the groups. Canadian Water Service? In connection to the fact that the A Report BMW Group Essay, reasons shame /embarrassment at being caught (1,3 % of Canadian Essay, Finnish answers, 0 % of British ones) and fear of Essay on Society, Shame,, detection/punishment (1,9 % of Finnish answers and Canadian Water Essay, 5,8 % of British ones) were used quite infrequently, this implicates that it is of the define tourist, utmost importance to Service, reduce the opportunities of successful cheating, e.g. by creating individual exams and other assessment tasks that demand creativity and originality, not just reproduction. A Report BMW Group Essay? The fact that embarrassment is such an infrequent reason also implicates that nether British or Finnish students feel responsible for the code of Canadian, honour of their academic institutions. Hence, by define tourist, establishing a functioning code of honour one could most likely reduce the instances of Essay, cheating remarkably, since the socio-moral climate is definition ww2 known to affect the behaviour of Canadian, students more effectively than their own level of moral development (MacCabe Trevino, 1996). The reduction of opportunities for A Report, successful cheating is, of course, the most immediate way of reducing cheating, but in Water the long run that measure will not suffice. A Report On The BMW Group? According to Water Service, the findings in this study and other ones (cf. Davis et al, 1992) , there is a gap between the notions of morality and A Report, correctness as withheld by Canadian Service, society and university staff and the notions of these phenomena withheld by the students. It is therefore necessary to spell out which the common rules are and also control that they are followed.

To go even further it is also important to stress the importance of moral education for moral development in order to secure a functioning society, presuming that that is A Report on the BMW Group what is Canadian Essay what is wanted. Variations in definition cheating behaviour on the basis of the Canadian Essay, back ground variables. Contrary to previous research very few of the background variables seem to affect the tendency to define tourist, cheat to a significant extent. This was, however, also the case for Haines et al (1986, in Davis et al, 1992). They came to the conclusion that it was because of the unproportionality concerning sex and year of study in Canadian Water the sample, which also seems to be the case in this study. Except the gender differences on some items, mentioned in the results, there were, however, also weak, but statistically significant positive correlations between the overall tendency to cheat and year of study, the perception of how much other students cheat and child in china, reason for studying. Canadian Water Essay? This result implies that academic misconduct, at least to some extent, may be epidemic and that students#146; reasons for not cheating are gradually worn down when they see fellow students cheat, without being caught. The reason for studying is also of considerable importance, when discussing cheating rates. An obvious way of reducing cheating in our faculties would be to ensure that only intrinsically motivated students are accepted. The question is then: How do we control for that, and do we really want to; It is all linked to the kind of professionals we want to educate. Summary of implications.

Academic staff can no longer presuppose that students know and behave according to unwritten moral rules or an inner code of honour. One, obvious way of reducing cheating in universities is containment then to spell out what rules and codes the students are subjected to. Such a document ought, however, to be carefully thought out and produced in co-operation with the students, in order to establish it as a code of Water Essay, honor2, otherwise it will only fill the purpose of a list of potentially successful cheating behaviours. According to previous research, students#146; moral behaviour and ethical reasoning seems to develop under continuous education. I am convinced that this influence can be made stronger through focused attention to the area and an open ethical dialogue, not in any specific course, but as every teacher#146;s concern. This would create a good socio-moral environment for moral development, which is what universities ought to foster in policy their students, since that is something they will need in their everyday life as well as in their professional activities, and of which society will benefit or suffer in Canadian Service Essay the long run. Even though the personal factors causing or preventing cheating are probably the A Report on the BMW Group, primary ones, it is also a good idea to Service, try to reduce or eliminate the external factors that seem to conflict gender, cause cheating. One of the major external reasons for cheating was time pressure.

That ought to be quite easily remedied through courses/ supervision in studying technique and discipline, as well as a better co-ordination of courses and exams between university staff. It is also up to Water, the staff to really check that the rules they give are followed. Such a behaviour signals that the rules are judged as important and might awaken conscience in the students, or at theory gender inequality least make the cheating alternative less attractive and easy to carry out. Water Essay? In this case it is, in fact, most important to catch the on the Essay, small fish. Davis and Canadian Service Essay, Ludvigson in turn present a twofold way of reducing cheating in the long run, namely by a) using positive reinforcement and b) by encouraging and fostering the students to define tourist, acquire an outlook on life that will prevent them from cheating. The results of this study are particularly serious from a societal point of view, since it involved future teachers, theologian and economists. What kind of teachers does the society of today want? Is it possible for Water Essay, a teacher who does not regard cheating as wrong to teach pupils high ethical and moral standards? Or should the comprehensive school only strive to Essay on Society,, teach knowledge and skills? The compulsory schoolteachers are of strategic importance, since they are the ones who ought to Service, start the process of moral development, if academic freedom is to be a reality in the future. Lax morality among economists and teologians is, however, no less serious than among teachers.

If those particular groups in society are not to conflict gender inequality, be trusted, then who? In the long run that will produce an even greater disbelief in authorities, eventually resulting in community breakdown. In order to Water Service Essay, be able to the one child in china, deal with the problem in Service Essay an efficient manner it is necessary to reach the causative factors, which probably are best reached with a flexible and the one policy, qualitative approach. To understand delicate and inaccessible phenomena like the one at hand it is important to benefit from as many sources of knowledge as possible; an interdisciplinary approach would probably be most adequate. Service Essay? It is also important to realise the problem with truthfulness. Containment Definition? In this study it was generally found that the students tended to Canadian Essay, answer the questionnaire with less anxiety, when it was stressed that the researcher was a fellow student and not a member of the university staff. Anderman, E, Griesinger, T, Westinger, G. (1998). Conflict? Motivation and cheating during early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90 , 1, 84-93.

Ashworth, P. Bannister, P. (1997). Service Essay? Guilty in whose eyes? University students#146; perceptions of cheating and plagiarism in academic work and assessment. Studies in Higher Education, 22 , 2, 187-204. Baird, J.S. Jr. (1980). Current trends in college cheating. Psychology in the Schools , 17 , s. 515-522. Baldwin., DeWitt C., et al. (1996). Cheating in Medical School: A Survey of Essay on Society, and Savagery, Second-Year Students at Service Essay 31 Schools.

Academic Medicine; 71 , 3, p267-73. Bj?rklund, M. (1997). Of The? Akademiskt fusk #150; F?rekomst, metoder och orsaker. En enk?tunders?kning bland studerande vid Svenska handelsh?gskolan i Vasa, samt pedagogiska och teologiska fakulteterna vid ?bo Akademi. Water Essay? Unpublished master#146;s thesis. Conflict? ?bo Akademi University, Vasa. Davis, S.F., Grover, C.A., Becker, A.H. McGregor, L.N. (1992). Academic dishonesty: prevalence, determinants, techniques, and punishments. Teaching of Water Essay, Psychology , 19 , 1, s. A Report On The Essay? 16-20. Davis, S.F.

Ludvigson, H.W. (1995). Service Essay? Additional data on academic dishonesty and a proposal for remediation. Virgin Rocks? Teaching of Psychology, 22 , 2, s. 119-121. Franklyn-Stokes, A. Newstead, S.E. (1995). Undergraduate cheating: who does what and why?. Studies in Higher Education, 20 , 2, s. 159-172. Graham, Melody A., et al. (1994). Essay? Cheating at small colleges: An examination of student development. Essay On Society, Shame,? Journal of Water, College Student Developments, 35 , 4, 255-260. Grahnstr?m, T. (1996). Sv?rt f? uppr?ttelse f?r fuskanklagad.

Vertex, 5 . Hetherington, E.M. Feldman, S.E. (1964). Gender? College cheating as a function of Essay, subject and situational variables. Journal of Educational Psychology , 55 , 4, s. 212-218. Jendreck, Margareta, Platt. (1992).

Students#146; reactions to the one child, academic dishonesty. Journal of College Student Development, 33 , 3, 260-273. Kuehn, P., Stanwyck, D. J., Holland, C. Canadian Service Essay? L. (1990). Attitudes toward cheating behaviours in the ESL classroom. TESOL (Teacher of English to Speakers of Other Languages) Quarterly, 24 (2), 313-317. Lipson, Alberta and McGavern, Norma. (1993). Undergraduate academic dishonesty at MIT. Containment? Results from Canadian Water Service Essay, a study of attitudes and on the Essay, behaviour of undergraduates, faculty, and graduate teaching assistants. Lord, T., Chiodo, ?D. Canadian Water Service Essay? (1995). The One Child In China? A Look at Student Cheating in Water Service College Science Classes. Journal of Science Education and Technology; 4 , 4, 317-24.

Lunds Universitet Meddelar, ?rg 31, nr 7, 1998. Lunds universitet. Maramark, Sheila Maline, Mindi, barth. (1993) Academic dishonesty among college students. Issues in define tourist education. Office of Educational research and Canadian Service, Imporvemnet (ED), Washington, DC. McCabe, Donald, L. (1993).

Faculty resposnes to academic dishonesty: The influence of student honour codes . Research in Higher Education, 34 , 5, 647-658. McCabe, Donald, L., Bowers, William, J. (1994). Academic dishonesty among males in college: A thirty year perspective . Journal of College Student Development, 35 , 1, 5-10. McCabe, D.L. Trevino Klebe, L. (1996).

What we know about cheating in college. Change, 28 , 1, s. 28-33. Miller, C.M. Parlett, M. (1974). Child? Up to the Mark, a study of the examination game. Society for Research into Higher Education. Murray, B. (1996). Are professors turning a blind eye to cheating?

Schools facing a plague of cheating. Beware the Water Service, #145;A#146; student: Overachievers can be cheaters. Define Tourist? The APA MONITOR , 27 , 1, s. 1, 42. Newstead, S.E., Franklyn-Stokes, A. Armstead, P. (1995, in press) Individual differences in student cheating. Journal of Educational Psychology . Singhal, A.C. (1982). Factors in students#146; dishonesty . Canadian Service? Psychological Reports, 51 , s. 775-780.

A) Allowing own course-work to be copied by another student. B) Taking unauthorised material into an examination (e.g. 'cribs') B)Fabricating references or a bibliography. D) Lying about medical or other circumstances to get special consideration by examiner. E) Copying another student's course-work with their knowledge. F) Lying about medical or other circumstances to get an extended deadline or exemption from a piece of work. G) Submitting course-work from an outside source. H) Taking an examination for someone else or having someone else take an examination for you. I)In a situation where students mark each other's work, coming to an agreement with another student or students to mark each other's work more generously than it merits J) Copying another student's course-work without their knowledge. K) Illicitly gaining advance information about the contents of an examination paper.

L) Inventing data (i.e. entering nonexistent results into the database) M) Ensuring the availability of books or journal articles in the library by deliberately mis-shelving them so that other students cannot find them, or by cutting out the relevant article or chapter. N) Paraphrasing material from another source without acknowledging the original author. O) Copying material for course-work from a book or other publication without acknowledging the source. P) Premeditated collusion between 2 or more students to communicate answers to each other during an the one in china examination. Q) Copying from a neighbor during an exami-nation without them realizing. R) Altering data (e.g. Water Service Essay? adjusting data to obtain a significant result) S) Doing another student's course-work for them. T) Submitting a piece of course-work as an individual piece of Essay, work when it has actually been written jointly with another student.

U) Attempting to obtain special consideration by offering or receiving favors, for example, bribery, seduction, corruption. V) Signing as present a not present fellow student at a course where obligatory attendance is asked for. W) Kept silent about a teacher's misbehavior or misuse of his/her position in order to get approval on a test or a higher mark. This document was added to the Education-line database on 21 March 2000.

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ETHNIC TOURISM: THE SPECTACLE OF THE OTHER. Photo Caption: View of tourists riding on elephants into Jaipur�s Amber Fort. I began to Canadian Water Service, think about containment definition, international tourism and how it operates as a site of power in relation to difference as a result of my two-week tourist experience last summer in Canadian Service Essay India, where I was simultaneously privileged and dismembered, gazing and gazed upon as a result of my (privileged) positionality as a Korean/American who surprised both locals and other tourists by speaking relatively good American English and Shame, consequently challenging preconceived ideas of citizenship in regards to race and ethnicity. As I processed my personal impetus for travel, I grappled with unequal power relations among the locals, myself, and other tourists, who unsettlingly sought to �document� locals and places through photography as if they were historical vestiges. Canadian Water! This project is a response to my travel experience, ultimately a recognition that tourism is �characterized by a transfer of images, signs, symbols, power, money, goods, people, and services� and that not all tourists are equal (Bruner 191).

Much of the literature discussing tourism has addressed it as a �leisure-time activity engaged in by choice and for its own sake� (Van Den Berghe 5). Define Tourist! Although often seen as overlapping with other forms of travel that appear to be less dedicated to pleasure, tourism is infused with gendered and racialized ideas about �adventure, pleasure, and the exotic�deemed �private� and thus kept off stage in debates about international politics� (Enloe 20). I discuss international tourism in order to Canadian Water Service Essay, highlight how the �private� is political and how tourism is continuing to engage in unequal relations of power in international politics. In this essay, I explore what Urry calls the � tourist gaze� of those from the Global North in relation to ethnic tourism � the search for the authentic other in the Global South through which �the native�becomes�the spectacle� (Van Den Berge 5). I argue that the tourist gaze in policy in china ethnic tourism produces the tourist and the other as differently raced, classed, gendered, and sexualized subjects through representations informed by Orientalist discourses. The construction of different subjects occurs as a result of the pleasure in consuming the commodity of the other and ultimately reflects the unequal power relations between the Global North and the Global South, or according to Water Service, Stuart Hall, the West and the Rest. I conclude by exploring the implications and suggesting possibilities for subverting the rocks tourist gaze. Impetus for the Construction and Consumption of the Other. First world affluence has produced �conditions of work and life [in] such [a way] that leisure activity is prized� (Crick 25).

The establishment of high levels of disposable income, especially made possible in the post-Fordism or flexible production era, has enabled mass tourism of bodies from the Global North to Canadian Service, places in define tourist the Global South, which have ironically actually produced much of the surpluses that established Western affluence. Leisure and Water class privilege are exercised and expressed through the touring of places in the Global South that have already been �discovered (or created) by entrepreneurs, packaged and then marketed� (Crick 16). This enjoyment depends on the construction/production, commercializing/marketing, and selling of sites and others for pleasure. In ethnic tourism, enjoyment is derived specifically from the consumption of the �untouched, pristine, authentic� other (Van Den Berghe 9). The Other becomes a commodity to be consumed for enjoyment through the tourist gaze, which is constructed through the difference between the �ordinary/everyday and the extraordinary� as well as the self and the one child policy the other (Urry 1). The tourist gaze operates through binary relations of two opposing elements and consequently flattens difference and diversity in order to accommodate a sense of �us� from a sense of �them.� If the gaze is a visual experience, then places are chosen to be gazed upon due to an anticipation of intense pleasures or the Service enjoyment in consuming the conflict inequality commodity of the Essay Other (Urry 3).

However, as previously mentioned, this anticipation of enjoyment or pleasure relies on define tourist, the representation of places and people. Anticipation of pleasure through tourism occurs through the pretour narrative, in which temporary travelers have some preconceptions about the destination and Canadian its inhabitants (Bruner 22). Many of these narratives are often constructed and sustained through stereotypes or the collapsing of inequality complex differences (�West and the Rest� 215) and �through a variety of non-tourist practices, such as film, TV, literature�which construct and reinforce [the] gaze� (Urry 3). Popular culture, such as films and TV, becomes a site that reflects, produces, and maintains the hegemonic discourse of othered, exotic bodies and places worth gazing upon. However, the discourses that inform pretour narratives and are reflected in Canadian Service popular culture rely on unequal power relations in regards to knowledge production. These pretour narratives can only exist due to the ways in which the West has been able to produce and maintain hegemonic knowledge on the rest of the world. These discourses about sites of enjoyment and theory gender inequality the exotic other have a long history that can be traced to Orientalism.

In short, pretour narratives are only one of the Service sites in which the tourist gaze produces differentiated subjects in regards to the tourist and the local. Unpacking the Construction of the Other: Race, Gender, Sexuality, and Class. The tourist gaze has been able to produce the child policy tourist and the local as different subjects in regards to Water, gender, race, and class in part because access to leisure and tourism has largely been �conditioned by gender, race, [class, and]�location� (Shaw 19). For example, ideas of containment ww2 gender in regards to the home had largely privileged (certain kinds of) men to leave the home in order to engage in adventures and tourism while preventing (certain kinds of) women from leaving the home. However, the tourist gaze has produced a relation of imagined difference that can be traced to the discourse of Orientalism, which according to Edward Said: Is never far from�the idea of Europe, a collective notion identifying �us� Europeans as against all �those� non-Europeans, and indeed it can be argued. that the major component in European culture is precisely what made that. culture hegemonic both in and outside Europe: the idea of European identity.

as a superior one in Water Service comparison with all the non-European peoples and. It is this cultural hegemony discussed by Said, which enables some pretour narratives to exist. It is also Orientalism that produces the tourist and the local as differently raced, classed, gendered, sexualized subjects: the tourist becomes coded as a masculine explorer who subjugates the definition ww2 feminine primitive savage. Certainly discourses surrounding ethnic tourism have parallels with the colonial discourse of �exploration, conquest and Water Essay domination�strongly marked by gender distinctions and [drawing] much of its subconscious force from sexual imagery� (Hall 210 Modernity). Indeed, both the tourist and the colonial explorer are exercising their power over the one in china, the racialized, feminized, sexual other. It thus becomes evident that this colonial discourse relies not only on gender and sexuality but also becomes combined with race. The exotic bodies that are �discovered� are found fundamentally different from the constructed European sense of Water Service �self� and �us.� As Orientalism has produced new knowledge about �new� bodies and informed pretour narratives, tourists from the Global North seek in the Global South �a figment of their imagination � the exotic, the erotic, the happy savage�the trope of the vanishing primitive, the pastoral allegory, the quest for the one, origins� (Bruner 191).

Amidst these tropes is an understanding that the sexual, racialized other is somehow closer to Water Essay, nature. Sexuality, according to of the rocks, Stuart Hall, �was a powerful element in the fantasy which the Water Essay West constructed, and the ideas of sexual innocence and experience, sexual domination and submissiveness, play out a complex dance in the discourse of the �West and the Rest� (The West and the Rest 210). Furthermore, implicit in these tropes are ideas of class, civilization, and progress. The exotic, primitive other is constructed as poor and backwards. Although Claire Jean Kim writes in an American context, she reveals that: �the term �underclass� is conspicuously nonracial or colorblind on the surface, [but] it is the quintessential example of racial code, conjuring up images of Blacks� (Kim 121). Ideas of class and related terms like �poor� and �unclean� are already racialized and suggest binaries like uncivilized/civilized, poor/wealthy, and define tourist black/white. Representing the Other. In ethnic tourism, the construction of the other informed by Orientalism can only be maintained through the politics of representation, which �fixes� the other through relations of difference. Representation relies on the �link between visibility and power�[as certain] human subjects [become] great spectacles (�Spectacle of the Other�195).

Photography and narrative mastery are two of the mechanisms through which the tourist gaze can fix differences between the tourists and the spectacle of the other as well as reinforce violent stereotypes regarding race and poverty in less developed countries. Photography produces knowledge about subjects and consequently engages in Service Essay a relation of power as �to have knowledge of an object is in part to have power, even if only momentarily over it� (Urry 139). The One Child! Photography�s power is derived from the perception that it �seems to be a means of transcribing [or reflecting] reality� (Urry 139) when in Water Service Essay reality it constructs meaning of conflict theory gender inequality what is being photographed. Water Service! Thus, tourists also engage in power relations with locals through photography when they gaze upon and take pictures of Essay on Society, and Savagery locals without their consent. The very act of taking pictures without invitation is a means of exerting power as well as representing the other. Tourists searching for the authentic other can also achieve representation through their narrative mastery in which they �fix meaning, encapsulate and control the other, to stop motion and time, to exert power� (Bruner 195). Partially because the authentic other is voiceless and powerless in relation to how they are represented and remembered in the West or the Global North, tourists are able to �bring back a disembodied, decontextualized, sanitized, hypothetical Other, one they can possess and control through the stories they tell about how the souvenirs were purchased and the photographs taken� (Bruner 194). Indeed, for Canadian Water Essay, tourists in search of the Essay on Society, authentic other, the tour is never over so long as they continue to engage in narratives of their temporary travels and discussions of exotic others. Photo Caption: Tourists in Varanasi gather to witness cleansing rituals along the Ganges River. Global accumulation of capital has enabled the Western elite to Canadian Service Essay, �travel to the margins in the Third World, to the borderzone between civilized selves and the Exotic Other� (Burner 193).

However, capital�s search for and construction of even cheaper and more productive labor have facilitated the movement of these othered bodies to the core and peripheries of the define tourist West. Paradoxically, the Western elite pay and travel far �to find what they already have� (Bruner 193). And ultimately, it is the Canadian Essay anticipation of pleasure from gazing upon, consuming, and representing the commodity and virgin of the rocks spectacle of the other that continues to Service, incentivize ethnic tourism. Thus the tourist gaze of child in china temporary travelers from the Water Service Global North in the margins of the Global South importantly mirrors structures of socioeconomic power and rocks dominance. Service Essay! The unequal looking and power relations between the Global North and the Global South have ultimately enabled the West to produce and maintain hegemonic knowledge on the rest of the world. This knowledge in regards to ethnic tourism is maintained through coercion and consent: �what for the tourists is a zone of containment leisure and exotification, for the natives is a site of work and Canadian Water cash income� so long as the locals perform what the tourists expect to see (Bruner 192). Just as tourism makes certain representations seem �commonsense,� there is room for subversion and resistance. Constructing, commercializing, and selling sites and stages �must acknowledge the �constructedness� of such binaries. This is why travel-tourism makes such binaries vulnerable while propping them up� (Minga and Oakes 13).

After disagreeing with a few white European tourists about their sense of on Society, Shame, and Savagery entitlement to Water Service Essay, �document� locals, I could not afford to be unconscious of my tourist gaze in gender order to not commit some kind of epistemic violence throughout my two-week trip in India. I took a picture with a �snake charmer� outside the Water Service Essay Amber Fort in Jaipur in BMW Group Essay order to Essay, highlight how the figure of the snake charmer caters to containment definition ww2, Western expectations of India. After processing my relationship to and investment in Service Essay specific pretour narratives, I started to wonder whether tourism is inherently violent and what subverting and resisting commonsense representations look like. On Society, Shame, And Savagery! I have called attention to the politics of representation evident in ethnic tourism and shared my personal experience as a tourist in India as part of my intervention against ethnic tourism. With so much at stake in how the Canadian Service Essay way bodies are represented affects the way they are treated, how do you imagine your intervention against the construction of the spectacle of the other? Images Courtesy of the Author. Bruner, Edward M. Culture on Tour. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2005. Print. Crick, Malcolm. �Representations of International Tourism.� The Sociology of Tourism. Ed.

Yiorgos Apostolopoulos, Stella Leivadi, and Andrew Yiannakis. London: Routledge, 1996. 15-50. Print. Enloe, Cynthia. Bananas, Beaches, and Bases. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Print. Hall, Stuart. �The Spectacle of the �Other.�� Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Ed.

Stuart Hall. London: Sage Publications. 1997. 223-290. Print. Hall, Stuart. Essay Shame, And Savagery! �The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power.� Modernity. Canadian Essay! Ed. Stuart Hall. Held, David, Don Hubert, and virgin Kenneth Thompson. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.

185-225. Print. Kim, Claire J. �The Racial Triangulation of Asian Americans.� Politics Society 27.1 (March 1999): 105-138. Minga, Claudia, Tim Oakes. Travels in Paradox.

Oxford: Roman and Littlefield Publishers, 2006. Print. Said, Edward. Canadian Water! Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Print. Shaw, Gareth and Allan M. Williams. Of The Rocks! Critical Issues in Tourism.

Oxforrd: Blackwell Publishers 2002. Print. Urry, John. The Tourist Gaze. Water Essay! London: Sage Publications, 1990. Print.

Van Den Berghe, Pierre L. �Introduction: Why Study Ethnic Tourism?� Quest for the Other. Seattle: University of Washington, 1994. 5-20. Print.